Medieval History of India for UPSC IAS 2024

Chronology (Medieval)

1192-93: Capture of Delhi by Qutab-ud-din.
1194: Defeat of Gahadvala King Jaychandra of Kanauj by the Muhammadans at the battle of Chandwar.
1200: Conquest of Bihar and Bengal by the Muhammadans under Ikhti-yaruddin (popularly called Bakhtiyar Khalji).
1206: Death of Shihab-ud-din Muhammad Ghuri and the accession of Qutb-ud-din as the Sultan of Delhi.
1210: Death of Qutab-ud-din.
1210-11: Accession of Iltutmish.
1221: Invasion by Changez Khan.
1228: Conquest of Kamarupa by Sukhapa, the first Ahom King.
1231: Foundation of the Qutab Minar.
1236: Death of Iltutmish- accession and deposition of Firuz- accession of Raziya.
1240: Deposition and murder of Raziya.
1246-66: Reign of Sultan Nasir-ud-din.
1266-87: Reign of Ghiyas-ud-din Balban.

Ghiyas-ud-din Balban

1288: Marco Pollo at Kayal.
1290: Fall of the slave dynasty-accession of Jalal-ud-din Khalji.
1292: Ala-ud-din Khalj captured Bhilsa- Mongol invasion.
1294: Devagiri pillaged by Ala-ud-din Khalji.
1296-1316: Reign of Ala-ud-din Khalji.
1297: Conquest of Gujarat.
1301: Ranthambhor captured by Ala-ud-din Khalji.
1302-03: Ala-ud-din captured Chitor-Mongol invision.
1305: Ala-ud-din conquered Malwa, Ujjain, Mander, Chanderi and Dhar.
1306-07: Kafur's expedition to Devagiri.
1308: Expedition to Warangal by Ala-ud din's army.
1310: Kafur's expedition into South India.
1316: Death of Ala-ud-din – the death of Kafur.
1317-18: Extinction of the Yadava dynasty.
1320: Accession of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq.
1325: Death of Ala-ud-din accession of Muhammad Tughluq.
1327: Transfer of capital from Delhi to Daulatabad.
1329: Issue of copper token currency in lieu of gold.
1334: Rebellion of Madura.
1336: Foundation of the Kingdom of Vijayanagar.
1337-38: Expedition to Karajal.
1338-39: Establishment of an independent sultanate in Bengal.
1339: Kashmir becomes independent under Shah Mir.
1342: Ibn Batutah started his mission to China.
1343: Accession of Shams-ud-din Iliyas Shah in Bengal.
1347: Foundation of the Bahmani Kingdom.
1351: Death of Muhammad Tughluq.

Muhammad Tughlaq

1351-88: Reign of Firuz Shah Tughluq.
1393: Establishment of the independent sultanate of Jaunpur.
1398: Invasion of Timur.
1414: Raja Ganesh in Bengal.
1420: Nicolo Conti visited Vijayanagar.
1429: Bahmani capital transferred from Gulbarga to Bidar.
1430-69: Reign of Rana Kumbha in Mewar.
1434-35: Kapilendra, King of Orissa.
1443: Abdur Razzak began his visit to India.
1451: Fall of the Tughluq dynasty- accession of Bahlul Lodi.
1469: Birth of Guru Nanak.
1472: Birth of Sher Shah.
1481: Murder of Muhammad Gawan.
1484: Berar seceded from the Bahmni Kingdom.
1489: Accession of Sikandar Lodi- the foundation of Ahmadnagar.

Sikandar Lodi

1490: Foundation of the independent Sultanate of Ahmadnagar.
1493: Husain Shah became the King of Bengal.
1494: Babur ascended the throne of Farghana.
1497-98: First voyage of Vasco-da-Gama.
1509: Accession of Krishnadeva Raya- Albuquerque, Portuguese Governor in India.
1509-27: Reign of Rana Sanga in Mewar.
1510: Capture of Goa by the Portuguese.
1512-18: Foundation of the independent sultanate of Golkonda.
1526: First battle of Panipat- accession of Babur to the throne of Delhi – commencement of Mughal rule in India.
1527: Battle of Khanua and the defeat of Rana Sanga.
1529: Battle of the Gogra and Afgan defeat.
1530: Death of Krishnadeva Raya- the death of Babur's accession of Humayun.
1533: Capture of Chitor by Bahadur Shah of Gujarat.
1534: Humayun marched to Malwa.
1535: Humayun defeated Bahadur Shah who fled.

Humayun

1538: Sher Khan defeated Mahmud Shah of Bengal- Humayun invaded Bengal- Death of Guru Nanak.
1539: Sher Khan defeated Humayun at Chausa and assumed sovereignty.
1540: Humayun was defeated at Kanauj and became a fugitive.
1542: Birth of Akbar at Umarkot.
1544: Humayun in Persia.
1545: Death of Sher Shah- accession of Islam Shah.
1555: Humayun recovered the throne of Delhi.
1556: Death of Humayan- accession of Akbar- Second battle of Panipat.
1558: End of the Sur dynasty.
1560: Fall of Bairam Khan.
1561: Akbar conquered Malwa.
1562: Akabar married a Princess of Amber – end of Petticot government.
1564: Akbar abolished the jizya, defeated Rani Durgavati, and annexed her kingdom.
1565: Battle of Talikota and destruction of the city of Vijayanagar.
1568: Akbar captured Chitor.
1569: Akbar captured Ranthambhor and Kalanjar- the berth of his son, Salim.
1571: Foundation of Fatehpur Sikri.
1572: Annexation of Gujarat by Akbar.
1573: Surat surrendered to Akbar.
1575: Battle of Tukaroi- the defeat of Daud Khan by Akbar.
1576: Akbar subjugated Bengal- the death of Duad Khan- battle of Haldighat or Gogunda.
1577: Invasion of Khandesh by Akbar.
1579: Promulgation by Akbar of the "Infallibility Decree".
1580: Rebellion in Bengal and Bihar.
1581: Akbar's march against his brother Haakim and reconciliation with him.
1582: Promulgation by Akbar of the "Din-Illahi".
1586: Annexation of Kashmir by Akbar.
1589: Death of Todar Mal and Bhagwan Das.
1591: Conquest of Sind By Akbar.
1592: Annexation of Orissa to Akbar's empire.
1595: Siege of Ahamadnagar by the Mughuls- acquisition of Qandhar by Akbar annexation of Baluchistan to Mughal empire death of Faizi.
1597: Death of Rana Pratap.
1600: Charter to the London East India Company- Ahmadnagar stromed by the Mughals.
1601: Capture of Asirgarh by Akbar.
1602: Death of Abul Fazl- formation of the United East India Company of the Netherlands.
1605: Death of Akbar- accession of Jahangir.
1606: Rebellion of Prince Khusrav- in vestment of Qandahar by the Persians- execution of the fifth Sikh Guru Arjan, by Jahangir's orders.
1607: Qandahar relived by the Mughals- the death of Sher Afgan widowed Nur Jahan brought to the Mughal harem.
1608: Recovery of Ahmadnagar by Malik Ambar.
1609: Arrival of Hawkings at Agra opening of a Dutch factory at Pulicat.
1611: Jahangir married Nur Jahan- Hawkings left Agra- English factory at Masulipattam.
1612: Prince Khurram married Mumtaz Mahal-English factory at Surat- annexation of Kuch Hajo to the Mughal empire.
1613: Jahangir granted a farman- to the East India Company.
1615: Submission of Mewar to Jahangir- arrival of Sir Thomas Roe in India.
1616: Jahangir granted an audience to Roe Dutch factory at Surat.
1618: Departure of Roe from the Imperial court.
1619: Departure of Roe from India.
1620: Mughals captured Kangra- betrothal of Prince Shahryar to Nur Jahan's daughter- revolt of Malik Ambar.
1622: Death of Prince Khusrav- Qandahar captured by Persia- Rebellion of Shah Jahan.
1624: Shah Jahan's rebellion was suppressed.
1625: Dutch factory at Chinsura.
1626: Death of Malik Ambar- rebellion of Mahabat Khan.
1627: Death of Jahangir
1628: Shah Jahan proclaimed Emperor.
1630: Birth of Shivaji.

Shivaji

1631: Death of Mumtaz Mahal.
1632: Mughal invasion of Bijapur Hughli sacked.
1633: Extinction of the Nizam Shahi dynasty of Ahmadnagar.
1634: Grant of firman permitting the English to trade in Bengal.
1636: Mughals made treaties granting respite to Bijapur and Golconda appointment of Aurangzeb as Viceroy of the Deccan.
1638: Recovery of Qandahar by the Mughal.
1639: Foundation by the English of Fort St. George at Madras.
1646: Shivaji captured Torna.
1649: Qandahar was captured again by Persia and lost by the Mughals.
1651: English factory at Hughli.
1653: Dutch factory at Chinsura.
1656: Annexation of Javli by Shivaji.
1657: Illness of Shah Jahan commencement of the war of succession.
1658: Battle of Dharmat (April) and Shamugarh (May) coronation of Aurangzeb.
1659: Battles of Khajwah and Deorai execution of Dara captivity of Murad and of Shah Jahan sec and coronation of Aurangzeb death of Afzal Khan at the hands of Shivaji.
1660: Prince Shuja drove from Bengal to Arakan Mir Jumla governor of Bengal.
1661: Cession of Bombay to the English execution of Murad Mughals captured Cooch Behar and began the invasion of Assam.
1662: Mir Jumla overran Assam and forced the Ahoms to make peace.
1663: Death of Mir Jumla appointment of Shaista Khan as governor of Bengal.
1664: Surat was sacked by Shivaji foundation of the French East India Company assumption of royal title by Shivaji.
1666: Death of Shah Jahan Shivaji's visit to Agra and escape.
1668: Aurangzeb issued new religious ordinances adversely affecting Hinduism cession of Bombay to East India Company foundation of the first French factory at Surat.
1669: Gokla, the Jat leader, rebelled.
1670: Surat was sacked a second time by Shivaji.
1671: Chhatrasal Bundela rebelled.
1672: Satnami rebellion- revolt of the A fridis.
1674: Foundation of Pondicherry assumption of the title of Chhatrapati by Shivaji.
1675: Execution of the Sikh Guru Teg Bahadur.

Shri Guru Teg Bahadur Singh ji

1677: Shivaji's conquests in the Carnatic.
1678: Death of Jaswant Singh occupation of Marwar by Aurangzeb's orders.
1679: The re-imposition of the jizya by Aurangzeb Aurangzeb ordered the invasion of Marwar.
1680: Death of Shivaji- the rebellion of Prince Akbar.
1681: Assam re-asserted independence- Aurangzeb went on his Deccan visit.
1686: Conquest and annexation of Bijapur by Aurangzeb.
1687: Conquest and annexation of Golconda by Aurangzeb.
1689: Execution of Shambhuji's accession of Rajaram and his retirement to Jinji.
1690: Foundation of Calcutta by Job Charnock.
1691: Jats defeated and subdued by the Mughals Aurangzeb at the height of his power.
1692: Resumption of aggressive hostility by the Marathas.
1698: Foundation of a new English Company trading to the East Indies acquisition by the East India Co. of Zamindari of Sutanati, Kalikata and Govindapur.
1699: First Maratha raid on Malwa.
1700: Death of Rajaram regency of Tara Bai.
1702: Amalgamation of the English and the London East India Companies.
1703: Berar was raided by the Marathas.
1706: Gujarat was raided by the Marathas who sacked Baroda.
1707: Death of Aurangzeb battle of Jajau accession of Bahadur Shah.
1708: Shahu, on his return from Delhi to Poona, became the King of the Marathas death of Guru Govind Singh.
1712: Death of Bahadur Shah I accession of Jahandar Shah.
1713: Accession of Farruksiyar murder of Jahandar Shah.
1714: Balaji Viswanath Peshwa–Hussain Ali viceroy of the Deccan treaty between Hussain Ali and the Marathas.
1716: Execution of Banda-Surman Embassy to the Imperial Court.
1717: Emperor Farruksiyar's firman to East India Company.
1719: Farruksiyar put to death accession and deposition of puppet emperors accession of Muhammad Shah.
1720: Succession of Baji Rao I to the Peshwaship fall of the Sayyid brothers.
1724: Appointmenting Saadat Khan as governor of Oudh virtual independence of the Nizam in the Deccan appointment of Qamaruddin as wazir.
1725: Shuja-ud-din appointed governor of Bengal.
1735: Recognition by the Emperor of Peshwa Baji Rao I as ruler of Malwa.
1739: Nadir Shah took Delhi and sacked it after the death of Shuja-ud-din and the appointment of his son, Sarfaraz, as Governor of Bengal capture of Bassein and Salsette by the Marathas.
1740: Alivardi Khan defeated and killed Sarfaraz Khan and became Nawab of Bengal, accession of Balaji Baji Rao as Peshwa, invasion of Arcot by the Marathas, and defeat and death of its Nawab, Dost Ali.
1742: Marathas invaded Bengal and appointed Duplex as Governor of Pondicherry.
1744: 48 First Carnatic (Anglo-French) War.
1745: Rohillas in occupation of Rohilk hand.
1747- Invasion by Ahmad Shah Abdali.
1748: Death of Nizam Chin Qlich Khan death of Emperor Muhammad Shah accession of Ahmad Shah.
1749: Death of Shahu restoration of Madras to the English.
1750-54: Second Carnatic War.
1750: Defeat and death of Nizam Nasir Jang- Muzaffar Jang became Nizam.
1751: Capture and defense of Arcot by Robert Clive- the death of Muzaffar Jang- accession of Salabat Jang as Nizam conclusion of the treaty by Nawab Alivardi Khan with the Marathas by surrendering Cuttack.
1754: Recall of Dupleix Godehu's appointment as governor and his treaty with the English accession of Alamgir II.
1756: Death of Alivardi Khan (21 April) accession of Siraj-ud-daulah who captured Calcutta (20 June) Seven Year's War.
(1756-63): Third Carnatic War.
1757: Recovery of Calcutta by the English (2 January), Delhi and Mathura sacked by Ahmad Shah Abdali (January), treaty of Alinagar between Siraj and the English (9 Feb.), the capture of Chandernagore by the English (March), Battle of Plassey.
(23 June)- capture and execution of Siraj-ud-Daulah. Siraj-ud-Daulah
1758: Arrival of Lally in India, occupation of the Panjab by the Marathas-Masulipatam captured by Forde.
1759: Battle of Bedara, Prince Ali Gauhar's futile invasion of Bihar, Emperor Alamgir II Murdered by Ghazi-ud-din.
1760: Battle of Wandiwash, battle of Udgir installation of Mir Qasim as Nawab of Bengal, Vansittart appointed as governor in Bengal.
1761: Third battle of Panipat (January), surrender of Pondicherry to the English accession of Ali Gauhar as Emperor Shah Alam II, appointment of Suja-ud-daulah as Wazir, death of Peshwa Balaji Baji Rao (23 June) accession of Madhava Rao Haider Ali King of Mysore.

Important Places of Medieval India

Attock — It is a district place in West Punjab and Alexander crossed the Indus at Ohind, which is very near to Attock. Akbar built a fort here in 1581. Ranjit Singh invaded it on 1812. The forces of Anandpal were also defeated by Mahmud of Ghazni near Ohind.
Bidar — A district place in the Gulbarga division of hyderabad, it was captured by Muhammad Tughlaq in 1321. In 1343 Shah Gangu, the first King of Bahmani dynasty took it in his hands. In 1430 Ahmed Shah Bahmani made it his capital. After the fall of the Bahmani Kingdom, it came under the rule of Barid Shah who reigned from 1492. Later on it was captured by Bijapur. The city was plundered by Malik Amber in 1624. Aurangjeb captured it in 1655.
Chaul — This city has been referred in the writings of foreign writers like Ptolemy. The Periplus maintains that it was a local mart. In 1505 A.D., the Portugese appeared here. They established a factory here in 1516. This city was burnt by the army of Bijapur in 1521. It was a city of trade and commerce.
Chunar — A famous port, it was captured by Prithviraj Chauhan. Sher Shah got it in marriage. In 1575. Akbar captured it. After the downfall of the Mughals it came under the Nawab of Oudh (Awadh).
Hampi — It is on the site of Hampi that we find the ruins of the imperial city of Vijayanagar. Nothing remains of the splendid palace except the basement of a few of its buildings. Two masonry platforms are found here. One of them was probably the basement of the king’s audience hall. The other is called the throne platform. This is described by Paes as the house of victory. The other secular buildings are the Lotus Mahal, the Elephant tables and two tower structures called wrongly as watch-towers of the zenana enclosure. Many temples are still found extant here. The most important of these are the temples of Pampapati, Vithalaswami and Hazara Rama.
Raichur — In the medieval period, Raichur formed part of the kingdom of Kampili, a dependency of the Yadava rulers. When Ala-ud-din annexed Devagiri, Kampili declared its independence. It was subsequently conquered by the Delhi sultan. The Raichur doab was the bone of contention between the Bahmani sultans and Vijayanagar rulers. Krishnadeva Raya captured it from the Bijapur sultan.
Devagiri (Deogir) — According to Hemadri, a great writer of the medieval period and minister of Mahadeva (A.D. 1261-1271) a Yadava ruler, Devagiri was founded by Bhillama (A.D. 1185-1193) and was made his capital. In 1294 A.D. Ala-ud-din invaded and pillaged it. In 1307 A.D. Malik Kafur took its ruler Ramachandradeva as a prisoner to Delhi. Six months later, Ala-ud-din released him and allowed him to rule Devagiri as his vassal. Malik Kafur invaded it again when Sankaradeva antagonised the Sultan by his hostile activities. Haripala, the son-in-law of Ramachandra, seized it after the withdrawal of Malik Kafur. In 1317 A.D. Mubarak Khaiji recovered it and brought it under his rule. Muhammad bin Tughluq transferred his capital to Devagiri which was renamed as Daulatabad.
Udabhandapura (Walhand or Ohind) —Udabhandapura is the modern village of Und on the right bank of the Indus a few km. above Attock. It was made the capital of the Brahmana Shahis when the Arabs captured Kabul. It remained as the capital till Bhatinda was made the capital, by Jayapala. In 1008 A.D., a battle was fought at Waihand in which Anandapala, the Shahi king was defeated by Mahmud Ghazni.
Warangal — Warangal was the capital of the Kakatiyas. Malik Kafur was sent against Warangal with instructions not to harass the king if he agreed to surrender his treasure. The fort of Warangal was besieged by Kafur with great vigour and obtained his submission. Again, it was besieged by Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq. Warangal was annexed to the Delhi sultanate and was renamed as Sultanpur. The Muslim kingdom of Golkunda grow up on the ruins of the kingdom of Warangal.
Srirangam — Srirangam is in the vicinity of Tiruchi in Tamilnadu. It is associated with Vaishnavism. It was one of the chief centres of activities of Ramanuja. The place is noted for its massive temple with gopurams, pillared halls and long colonnades. The temple appears to have been destroyed by Malik Kafur. The image of God, however, was saved and taken to Tirupati. Under Kumara Kampana’s auspices, the image was reconsecrated at Sriangam.
Udayagiri — Udayagiri in Nellore district in Andhra Pradesh was the seat of the viceroyalty of Vijayanagar empire in the 14th century. Kapilendra of Orissa sent an army under Hamvira to conquer the Tamil coastal districts. Hamvira first captured Udayagiri Salvos Narasimha recovered Udayagiri in 1469-70. But Purushottama of Orissa re-conquered it. Krishnadevaraya captured it. The Odriyans had lost it forever.
Salsette — Salsette on the western coast of India was a Portuguese settlement. It was previously under the control of the sultan of Bijapur. The occupation of Salsette brought the Portuguese into conflict with Bijapur. Finally, Bijapur agreed to leave Salsette in the possession of the Portuguese. In 1739 A.D. the Marathas captured Salsette from the Portuguese.
Quilon — Quilon or Koliam in Kerala was ruled by Ravivarman at the time of the Muslim invasions of south India in the reign of Ala-ud-din Khalji. Ravivarman was only a minor ruler. According to Ibn Batuta the Hindu ruler held the Muslims in high regard and the Muslims had a prosperous settlement under their own chief and judge who were Persians. Quilon was an important sea port. Merchants from Quilon sailed to Pegu, Malacca and Sumatra, etc. The Protuguese established their factory here. Pepper and calico were exported from here.
Raigarh— Raigarh was the capital of the Maratha empire under Shivaji. It was here that Shivaji declared himself king in 1674 A.D. with great pomp and splendour and assumed the title.

Rashtrakutas, Chandelas Chahamanas and Kashmir:

Rashtrakutas

Dantidurga of the Rashtrakuta family, who was a Mahasamanta under the Chalukya Vikramaditya II, defeated the later’s son and successor Kirtivarman II before 753 A.D. and wrested from him the greater portion of Deccan.
Dhruva led successful campaigns in North India against the Palas and the Pratiharas.
Amoghavarsha I, grandson of Dhruva who came intpower in 814 A.D. fought long-drawn battles with the Eastern Chalukyas and the Gangas. Amoghavarsha was a poet and he patonised men of letters, such as, Jinasena and Sakatayana.
He built the city of Manayakheta where old capital was shifted, possibly from Mayurakhindi.
His son Krishna II fought successfully against the Pratihara Bhoja but could not resist Gunaga Vijayaditya III of Vengi, overran the Rashtrakuta kingdom.
After his death in 915 A.D., his grandson Indra III, came to the throne. Indra III defeated the Pratihara Mahipala I, plundered Kanauj, and challenged the Eastern Chalukyas.
Krishna III wrested Tondaimandalam from the Chola Parantaka who continued the struggle for the recapture of the lost territory.
He was succeeded in 967 A.D. by his younger brother Khottiga who was a weak ruler. Khottiga was succeeded by Karka II in

972-73 A.D. who was overthrown by Chalukya Taila II.

The Chandellas

They rose into prominence in the 9th century A.D., and established a kingdom, later known as Jejakabhukti, in the Bundelkhand region.
The dynasty had been founded by Nannuka. The capital of this kingdom was Kharjura-Vahaka. The first king of note was Harsha who ruled from

List of Officials
(According tthe copper-plates of the Pala and Sena kings of Bengal)
1. Pramatri Survey or Judicial Officer.
2. Maha Sandhivi- Minister of
grahika peace and war.
3. Maha Mudra- Keeper of royal
dhikrita seal.
4. Antaranga Royal physician.
5. Maha Pratihara Chief Warden.
6. Maha Pilupati Chief elephant keeper.
7. Kottapala The officer- in-charge of the forts.
8. Mahaksha Patalika Keeper of records.
9. Brihad Uparika Governor General.
10. Maha Vyuhapati master of military arrays.

900 t925 A.D.

Like his predecessors, Harsha was a vassal of the Pratiharas. His son and successor, Yasovarman who reigned in the third quarter of the 10th century, conquered Kalanjara and extended his kingdom uptthe Yamuna in the north.
He came into conflict with the Gurjaras and successfully invaded Ganda and Mithila, then under the Pala rule.
Yasovarman was succeeded by his son Dhanga who acknowledged the supremacy of the Pratihara king Vinayakapala II at least upt954 A.D.
In the later part of the 10th century, he declared independence and wrested from the Pratiharas the eastern portion of their kingdom, including Varanasi.
He also raided Anga, Radha, Kosala, Andra, Kanchi and Kuntala.
During the reign of Ganda’s son, Vidyadhara, Mahmud of Ghazni invaded Kalanjara, once in 1019 A.D. and again in 1022 A.D.
In 1202 A.D. Qutb-ud-din invested the fort of Kalanjara and the Chandela king Paramardi sued for peace after a brief resistance.
The king’s minister, Ajayadeva, disapproving of his master’s conduct, killed him and resumed resistance the Muslims, but ultimately he had to surrender them.
Chahamanas
There are several branches of the Chahamanas, known in later time as the Chauhan Rajputs, and the most important of them ruled in Sakamabharidesa, the capital of which was Sakambhari, modern Sambhar in Rajasthan.
They had been feudatories of the Pratiharas till Simharaja declared independence in the middle of 10th century.
His successor, Vigraharaja II, defeated Mularaja I and overran Gujarat. Vigraharaja II was succeeded by a large number of kings, and in the first quarter of the 12th century, Ajayaraja was on the throne of Sakambhari. Ajayaraja founded a city which was called after his name Ajayameru, modern Ajmer.
The next important king was Prithviraja III who put down the revolt of Nagarjuna, defeated the Chandella Paramardi, and invaded the kingdom of the Chalukya Bhima II of Gujarat.
On receipt of the news that Muhammad Ghori had forcibly occupied the fort of Tabarhindah in his kingdom, he marched alongwith Govindaraja of Delhi and his general Skanda tthe Punjab, and defeated Ghori on the battle of Tarain (A.D. 1191).
In the following year, Mahammud Ghori defeated Prithviraj in the second battle of Tarain.
Prithviraja was captured and executed. After Ghori’s departure, Hariraja, brother of Prithviraja, regained Ajmer before 1194 A.D. but had to surrender to Qutab-ud-din Aibak.
Gahadvalas
Chandradeva, the first great ruler of the dynasty,

established himself in Kanauj and made it his capital. He was succeeded by his son Madanachandra, who was defeated and taken prisoner by Ala-ud-Daulah Masud III, who invaded Kannauj.

Govindachandra, son of Mahendrachandra, defeated Muslims and secured the release of his father. He was succeeded by his son Vijayachandra, whose son and successor Jayachandra suffered a defeat at the hand of the king Lakshmanasena of Bengal.
In A.D. 1193, Muhammad Ghori invaded the kingdom of the Gahadavalas and defeated and killed Jayachandra.

Kashmir

The Karkota dynasty was founded by Durlabhavardhana. Durlabhavardhana’s grandson Chandrapida, who ascended the throne in 713 A.D. had friendly relations with the Chinese emperor and earned renown by repulsing an invasion of the Arabs.
He was succeeded by his younger brothers—first Tarapida, then Lalitaditya Muktapida, the greatest king of the dynasty.
He repulsed an attack of the Arabs and victories over the Kambojas, Dards, and the Turks and overran the whole of North India. He sent a mission tChina, probably seeking assistance against the Tibetans. He died in 760 A.D.
Avantivarman was the founder of the Utpala dynasty. His reign closed in 883 A.D. and he was succeeded by his son Sankaravarman. He died before 902 A.D. under tragic circumstances and was succeeded by several kings.
At last, a Brahmana named Yasaskara was selected as king by an assembly of the Brahmanas in 939 A.D. His son was killed by his minister Parva gupta who ruled for about a year and was succeeded by his son Kshema gupta in 950 A.D.
Kshemagupts queen Didda, daughter of the king of Lohara, dominated Kashmir politics in the second half of the 10th century. After the death of her husband, she became the de factruler and in 980 A.D. she ascended the throne.
Samgramaraja was the founder of the Lohara dynasty in Kashmir. He repulsed several attacks of Mahmud of Ghazni.

A number of other kings followed; the last of them Harsha introduced the custom of putting on head-dress and ear-rings in Kashmir.
Ucchala and Sussala had overthrown Harsha and founded the second Lohara dynasty. The last king of this dynasty was Vantideva.

Pala Empire & Sena's of Bengal:

Political Condition

After the death of Yasovarman, there commenced a tripartite struggle for supremacy between three great powers; the Gurjara Pratiharas, the Palas, and the Rashtrakutas, and the ambition was always the occupation of the imperial city of Kanauj.

Pala Empire

Gopala, the founder of the Pala dynasty, reigned in the third quarter of the 8th century A.D. and was succeeded by his son Dharmapala.
The kingdom of the Palas now comprised Gauda, Vanga, Radha, and Magadha.
Dharmapala, which was the most powerful king of the dynasty, tried to establish an empire in north India. This involved him in war with the Pratiharas of Malwa and the Rashtrakutas of Deccan, who tried to expand their kingdom.
Devapala, which succeeded his father Dharmapala, intended to establish an empire and led expeditions against many states. He defeated the king of Gurjara and reached Kamboja country. He conquered Pragjyotisha (Assam) and Utkala and curbed the pride of the king of Dravida.
Devapala was succeeded by Vigrahapala. He was a weak king and abdicated the throne after a short reign of three or four years.
His son and successor, Narayanapala ruled for more than half a century. But he was a man of a pacific and religious disposition.
After the death of Naryanapala, his son Rajyapala ascended the throne. He was also a weak ruler. His two successors Gopala II and Vigrahapala were equally weak and the result was that the Pala Kingdom became confined ta part of Bengal.
After the death of Vigraha Pala, Mahipala I became the king. He was a brave soldier and was soon able to restore the lost position of the Pala dynasty.
He is, therefore, called the second founder of the Pala Kingdom.
It was during his reign that Rajendra Chola of Kanchi attacked Bengal but the Southern adventurer had ultimately treated back.
After the death of Mahipala, there was a succession of rulers, Nayapala, Vigrahapala III, Mahipala II, Surpala II, Rampala and Madhavapala were not as strong as Devapala and Mahipala.
The rule of the Pala dynasty came to end about the middle of the 12th century A.D.

The Senas of Bengal

The Senas of Bengal called themselves Kshatriya, Brahma-Kshatriya, and Karnata-Kshatriya, and were originally inhabitants of Dakshinapatha.
Vijayasena, which ascended the throne in A.D. 1095, conquered Vanga, defeating Bhojavarman, and were arrested Ganda from the last Pala king Madanapala.
Vijayasena was succeeded by his son Ballalsena in 1158 A.D. He conquered Mithila and a portion of East Bihar.
In 1187 A.D. he was succeeded by Lakshmanasena, who defeated Jayachandra of the Gahadwala dynasty and conquered Prayagjyotisa.
He was a noted general, but in the latter part of his reign when he became stricken with age, Muhammad-bin-Bhakhtyar Khalji by a sudden raid captured Nadia, where Lakshmana Sena lived.
The latter retired to Vikrampura where he ruled till 1205 A.D. His son Visvarupasena succeeded him on the throne.
After the conquest of Nadia, Muhammad-bin-Bhakhtyar Khalji conquered North Bengal and Muslim rule was established in Radha and Ganda.
About the middle of the 13th century, the Senas were overthrown by the Deva dynasty reigning in Saman-tata the east of the Brahmaputra.
The genealogy of the Sena dynasty given by R.D. Banerjee is:

Pratiharas

A branch of the Pratiharas, founded by the son of the Brahmana Harichandra by his Kshatriya wife, ruled in the Jodhpur State, Rajasthan, which was situated in Gujarati, also known as Gurjara.
Another branch of the family, the members of which seem to have been descendants of Harichandra by his Brahmana wife, founded a kingdom in Malwa, the capital of which was Ujjain, in the first half of the 8th century.
The earliest known king of this branch was Nagabhatta I, where fame by repulsing an attack of the Arabs of Sindh.
The next important king, his grand-nephew Nataraja, is known to have been ruling in 783 A.D. He extended his kingdom up to Jodhpur, which proves that Gujarati was included in his kingdom.
He defeated Dharmapala, the Pala ruler of Bengal, but himself suffered a reverse at the hands of the Rashtrakuta Dhruva III.
His son and successor, Nagabhatta II, was defeated and deprived of his throne of Malwa by the Rashtrakuta Govinda III, and he thereafter established himself in Gujarati. Later he took Kanauj from Chakrayudha and shifted his capital there.
The greatest king of this dynasty was Bhoja who had succeeded his father Ramabhadra in or about 836 A.D. He had some initial success and was a master of both Kanauj and Kalanjara.
He was, however, defeated by Devapala and fared better against the Rashtrakutas. He secured the aid of the powerful Chedi rulers of Gorakhpur and probably also of the Gahilot king. Assisted by these powerful chiefs, Bhoja had probably great difficulty in inflicting a crushing defeat upon the warlike king that sat upon the throne of Dharmapala and Devapala.
He defeated Krishna II, probably on the bank of Narmada, and occupied Malwa. He then advanced towards Gujarat and occupied the territory around Khetaka. But although this was recovered by Krishna II, Bhoja maintained his supremacy over the whole of the Kathiawar Peninsula.
A sanguinary battle was fought between Bhoja and Krishna II at Ujjayini which was long remembered by posterity. But it led to a decisive result, and Malwa remained in the hands of the Pratiharas.

Bhoja died about 885 A.D., leaving a consolidated empire this son and successor Mahendrapala.
Under Mahendrapala, Magadha and at least a considerable portion of North Bengal was added to the Pratihara empire.
Mahendrapala was succeeded by his two sons, Bhoja II and Mahipala. Although Mahipala may be credited with retrieving his fortunes to a large extent, there can be a question that the prestige of the Pratiharas sustained a serious blow.
The history of the Pratihara kings after Mahipala is somewhat obscure. But it seems that he was succeeded by his three sons, Mahendrapala II (945 A.D.), Devapala (948 A.D.), and Vijayapala (960 A.D.).

Social conditions

Rapid changes took place in the social conditions during this period.

Caste System

The four castes of the Vedic period continued. Three others are mentioned in the foreign records of the period—the royal caste, Chandalas, and the Lahud.
The Lahuds were probably wandering tribes were fond of amusements and games of skill.
Al-Beruni brackets the Brahmanas and Kshatriyas on the one hand, and the Vaishyas and the Shudras on the other.
He further says that these groups lived together not only in towns and villages but also in the same house in spite of wide differences between them.
It was in this period that the Kayasthas came into prominence as the writer caste.
There was rigidity in respect of caste occupation. The Brahmanas were engaged in professions which did not belong to them.
For example, some of them took agriculture. What is true of the Brahmanas is true of the other three castes, as well as the mixed castes.
Vaishyas and Shudras became rulers of big kingdoms. Kshatriyas took trade.
The idea of untouchability was gaining ground. A twice-born man, on seeing a Shudra, was required to stop performing his rite. On touching him, he must take a bath. However, Shudra's right to personal freedom was recognized.
It is said that the bodies of Shudras, Vaishyas, Kshatriya, and Brahmanas were carried out of the city through different gates.
With regard to foreign races that had settled in India, the records reveal that most of them were assimilated within the Hindu social system.
Thus the Hunas and the Parihars or Pratihars found a place among the thirty-six Rajput clans.

Slavery

We do not have much information about slavery.
The law books recommended the humane treatment of the slave and his family.
In south India, temples purchased slaves. Slave trade was also known.

Position of Women

Women were required to be obedient to their husbands and were guarded by all their male relations of all times.
Yet we find women belonging to upper classes in certain regions playing an important part in administration.
In countries like Kashmir, women acted as rulers.
In Karnataka, they served as provincial governors.
As regards marriage rules, intermarriages of twice-born men with girls of other varnas were prohibited.
The intermarriage of a Brahmana with a Kshatriya or a Vaishya girl was made exceptional.
In the case of marriages in the natural order (Anuloma), the son took the caste of the mother and in the case of the other types of marriages (Pratiloma), the son took the caste of his father.
Pratiloma connections had long been banned. Marriage with the daughter of a maternal uncle was condemned.
Similarly, Gandharva's form of marriage was not favoured. Generally, one married a girl very much younger than them. Child marriage was known.
Bride price was strongly condemned. Bridegroom price was not thought of during this period.
Women were permitted to remarry under certain conditions such as the death of the husband.
Sometimes, husbands were chosen at a swayamvara ceremony with the approval of the parents.
Sati was practiced in some parts of the country like Kashmir. It was prevalent mostly in royal and high families. It was however voluntary.
The custom of dedicating maidens for service in temples was continued. Prostitution was a recognized institution.
The prostitute was expected to possess very high qualifications of both body and mind.
Few More Informations
According to the Tibetan tradition, Dharmapala founded the famous Vikramashila monastery near modern Bhagalpur. He also patronized the great Buddhist author Haribhadra.
Dharmapala’s son Devapala received an embassy from Balaputradeva, the Sailendra king of East Indies, and gave it a grant of five villages in order endow a monastery at Nalanda.
The rise of Kaivarta chief's positions of power and wealth in the latter days of the Pala dynasty shows that careers were open to men of talent irrespective of caste and creed.
The most important event of the reign of Amoghavarsha was that he fixed his capital at Manyakheta (now Malkhed in Andhra Pradesh).
The great extent and prosperity of the Pratihara empire are attested by the Muhammadan traveller Al Masudi, a native of Baghdad, who visited India in the year 915-16 A.D.
Arnoraja, a member of the Chalukya family of Gujarat, received a grant from Kumarapala the village Vyaghrapalli, where he settled with his family.
The Kalachuris of Chedi, also known as kings of Dahala, had their capital at Tripuri. The royal dynasty was founded about 845 A.D. by Kokalla I.
In order to celebrate the victory of Yuvaraja over the Rashtrakutas, the famous poet Rajasekhara, staged his drama Vidya salabhanjika.
Upendra alias Krishnaraja was the founder of the Paramara dynasty. He was originally the Governor of Malwa, appointed by the Rashtrakuta emperor Govinda III after he had conquered the province from Nagabhatta II.
The most powerful ruler of the Paramaras was Munja, also known as Utpala and Vakpatiraja II. His greatest enemy was Taila II.
Kallar was the founder of the Hindu Sahiyas dynasty. He is generally identified with Ralliya Shahi was highly praised in the Rajatarangini of Kalhana.
The Rashtrakuta rulers built the shrine at Elephanta, Chotta Kailasa, Indra Sabha, and Jagannatha Sabha temples.
Amoghavarsha wrote Kavirajam-area a Kanarese work on poetics. Jainsenai wrote the Adipurana, Sakatayana authored Amoghavritti, Mahavicharya produced the celebrated treatise Ganitasarasangraha.

Political, Administrative and Cultural Conditions of Rashtrakutas:

Origin

The Rashtrakutas considered themselves descendants of Satyaki.
Historians differ on the question of their origins.
It is evident from a few Chalukya kings’ inscriptions that they were vassals of the Chalukyas.
Rashtrakutas were of Kannada origin and their mother tongue was Kannada.

≫ The Rashtrakuta Empire

≫ The Rashtrakuta Emperors
Rashtrakuta Emperors (753-982)

≫ Founder
Dantivarman or Dantidurga (735 - 756)
Dantivarman or Dantidurga (735 – 756) was the founder of the Rashtrakutas dynasty.
Dantidurga occupied all territories between the Godavari and Vima.
He is said to have conquered Kalinga, Kosala, Kanchi, Srisril, Malava, Lata etc. and occupied Maharashtra by defeating Chalukya King Kirtivarma.

≫ Rulers
(i) Krishna I (756 - 774)

Krishna I succeeded Dantidurga.
He conquered the territories that were still under the Chalukyas
He also occupied Konkan.
Krishna I also defeated Vishnuvardhana of Vengi and the Ganga king of Mysore.
He was a great patron of art and architecture.
The Kailash Temple at Ellora was built by the Rashtrakuta King Krishna I.

(ii) Govinda II (774 - 780)

Govinda II son of Krishna I succeeded.

(iii) Dhruva (780 - 793)

He defeated Gurjara-Pratihara King Vatsyaraja, the Pallavas of Kanchi and the Pala King Dharmapala of Bengal.

(iv) Govinda III (793 - 814)

Dhruva son of Govinda III succeeded the throne.
He defeated the great Gurjara King Nagabhatta II.
Pala King Dharmapala and his protégé Charayudh sought the help of Govinda III.
His kingdom spread up to the Vindhyas and Malava in the north and the river Tungabhadra to the south.

(v) Amoghavarsha I (814- 878 A.D.)

The greatest king of the Rashtrakuta dynasty was Amoghavarsha I son of Govinda III.
Amoghavarsha I set up a new capital at Manyakheta (now Malkhed in Karnataka State) and Broach became the best port of the kingdom during his reign
Amoghavarsha I was a great patron of education and literature.
Amoghavarsha was converted into Jainism by Jinasena, a Jaina monk.
Suleman, an Arab merchant, in his account called Amoghavarsha I as one of the four greatest kings of the world, the other three being the Caliph of Bagdad, the king of Constantinople and the emperor of China.
Amoghavarsha ruled for 63 years.

(vi) Krishna II (878 - 914)

Son of Amoghavarsha, succeeded the throne.

(vii) Indra III (914 -929)

Indra III was a powerful king.
He defeated and deposed Mahipala

(viii) Krishna III (939 – 967)

The last powerful and efficient king of the Rashtrakutas.
He also succeeded in conquering Tanjore and Kanchi.
He succeeded in defeating the Tamil kings of Chola kingdom.

(ix) Karka (972 – 973)

The Rashtrakuta King Karka was defeated and deposed by Taila or Tailapa, the Chalukya king of Kalyani.

≫ Rasjtrakutas Administration

divided rashtras (provinces) -contolled by rashtrapatis
Rashtras divided into vishayas or districts governed by vishayapatis
subdivision was bhukti consisting of 50 to 70 villages under the controlof bhogapatis
(i) Village headmen carried on village administration.
(ii) Village assemblies played a significant role in the village administration.

≫ Literature under Rashtrakutas

Rashtrakutas widely patronized the Sanskrit literature.
Trivikrama wrote Halayudha and composed Kavirahasya during the reign of Krishna III.
Jinasena composed Parsvabhudaya, a biography of Parsva in verses.
Jinasena wrote the Adipurana, the life stories of various Jain saints.
Sakatayana wrote Amogavritti a grammar work.
Viracharya – a Great mathematician of this period wrote Ganitasaram.
During the period of the Rashtrakutas, the Kannada literature saw its beginning.
Kavirajamarga composed by Amogavarsha’s was the first poetic work in the Kannada language.
Pampa was the greatest of the Kannada poets and Vikramasenavijaya is his famous work.
Santipurana was another great work wrote by Ponna another famous Kannada poet.

≫ Rashtrakutas Art and Architecture
(i) Art and Architecture

The art and architecture of the Rashtrakutas can be found at Ellora and Elephanta.
The most remarkable temple Kailasanatha temple at Ellora was built by Krishna.

(ii) Kailasanatha Temple

The temple is carved out of a massive block of rock measuring 200 feet long, and 100 feet in breadth and height.
The central face of the plinth has imposing figures of elephants and lions which give an impression that the entire structure rests on their back.
It has three-tiered shikhara or tower which resembles the sikhara of the Mamallapuram rathas.
There is a pillared hall with 16 square pillars in the interior of the temple.
A sculpture of the Goddess Durga is engraved as slaying the Buffalo demon.
In the interior of the temple, there is a pillared hall which has sixteen square pillars.
The sculpture of the Goddess Durga is shown as slaying the Buffalo demon.
In another sculpture Ravana was making attempts to lift Mount Kailasa, the abode of Siva.

(iii) Elephanta

Originally called as Sripuri, Elephanta is an island near Bombay.
The Portuguese named it as Elephanta after seeing the huge figure of an elephant.
The sculptures in Ellora and Elephanta have close similarities.
There are huge figures of dwara–palakas at the entrance to the sanctum.
Trimurthi is the most magnificent figure of this temple. The sculpture is six metres high and said to represent the three aspects of Shiva as Creator, Preserver and Destroyer.

≫ Other facts of Rashtrakutas

Vaishnavism and Saivism flourished during their period.
Active commerce witnessed between the Deccan and the Arabs.
They stimulated the Arab trade by maintaining a friendship with them.

Pallava Dynasty:

Introduction
The Pallavas emerged as a formidable power in the South around the 4th century AD and were at the height of their power in the seventh century AD. They were able to sustain their rule for about 500 years. They built great cities, centres of learning, temples, and sculptures and influenced a large part of Southeast Asia in culture.

≫ Important Facts about Pallavas
Some important facts are mentioned in the table below:

Who was the founder of the Pallava Dynasty?	There is no clarity on the name of the founder of Pallava dynasty but the rise of Pallavas in the last quarter of the 6th century is attributed to Simha Vishnu.
Who was the greatest ruler of the Pallava Dynasty?	Mahendravarman I is considered to be the greatest ruler of the Pallavas. His reign was marked by many architectural and literary achievements which would lay the foundations of future Art and Culture of South India
What is the name of the capital of Pallavas?	Kanchipuram was the capital of the Pallavas
What are the temples built by Pallavas?	Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram and the Kanchi Kailasanathar Temple at Kanchipuram are famous temples that were constructed during the reign of Pallavas

≫ Political History of Pallavas

The origins of the Pallavas are shrouded in mystery. There are several theories propounded by historians.
Some historians say they are a branch of the Parthian people (a tribe from Iran) who gradually migrated to South India.
Some say they are an indigenous dynasty that arose within the Southern region and were a mix of various tribes.
Some experts believe them to be of Naga origin who first settled around the Tondaimandalam region near Madras.
Another theory says that they are descendant from a Chola prince and a Naga princess of Manipallavam (an island off Jaffna, Sri Lanka).
Some others are of the opinion that the Pallavas were feudatories of the Satavahanas.
The first Pallava kings ruled during the beginning of the 4th century AD. By the 7th century AD, there were three kingdoms in southern India vying for supremacy namely the Chalukyas of Badami, the Pandyas of Madurai and the Pallavas of Kanchipuram.

≫ The extent of the Pallava dynasty

The Pallava capital was Kanchipuram.
Their territories at the height of their powers extended from the northern part of Andhra Pradesh to River Kaveri in the South.
During the seventh century, the Cholas were reduced to a marginal state by the authority of the Pallavas.
Vatapi (Badami) was occupied by the Pallava king Narasimhavarman who defeated the Chalukyas.
The Kalabhra uprising was crushed by the Pandyas, Chalukyas and the Pallavas jointly. The Kalabhras were protesting against the numerous land grants (Brahamadeya) to Brahmanas made by the Brahmanic rulers of the three dynasties.

≫ Rulers of the Pallava Empire
(i) Sivaskanda Varman

Greatest among the early rulers. Ruled at the beginning of the 4th century AD.
Performed Ashwamedha and other Vedic sacrifices.

(ii) Simhavarman/Simhavishnu (Reign: 575 AD – 600 AD)

Was a Buddhist.
Included Sri Lanka in his kingdom.
Defeated the contemporary Tamil ruler. Pallava history assumes a definite character from this ruler onwards.

(iii) Mahendravarman (Reign: 600 AD – 630 AD)

Succeeded Simhavishnu who was his father.
He was a poet and composed Vichitrachita and Mahavilasa Prahasana.
He introduced rock-cut temple architecture.
Was a Jain who converted to Saivism.
Had on-going rivalry and battles with Pulakesin II of Chalukya dynasty.
Mahendravarman died in battle with the Chalukyas. He was an able and efficient ruler.

(iv) Narasimhavarman I (630 AD – 668 AD)

Son and successor of Mahendravarman.
Considered the greatest of the Pallavas. Also called Narasimhavarman Mahamalla/Mamalla.
Defeated and killed Pulakesin II in 642 AD. He took control of Vatapi, the Chalukya capital and assumed the title ‘Vatapikonda’.
Also vanquished the Cholas, Cheras and the Pandyas.
He sent a naval expedition to Sri Lanka and reinstated the Sinhalese Prince Manivarma.
He founded the city of Mamallapuram or Mahabalipuram which is named after him.
Hiuen Tsang visited the Pallava kingdom during his reign in about 640 AD and he describes the people living in his kingdom as happy.
He also says there was an abundance of agricultural products.
Great Nayannar saints like Appar, Tirugnanasambandar and Siruthondar lived during his reign.
He was succeeded by his son Mahendravarman II who ruled from 668 to 670 AD.

(v) Later rulers

After Mahendravarman II, his son Parameswaravarman became the king.
During his rule, Kanchipuram was occupied by the Chalukyas.
Nripatunga was an important king who defeated a Pandya king.
There were a few other rulers. The last ruler of the Pallava dynasty was Aparajitavarman who was killed in battle with the Cholas.

≫ Pallava Society and Culture
Society & Culture

The Pallava society was based on Aryan culture.
Brahmins were greatly patronised by the kings, and they received land and villages. This was called Brahmadeya. The Brahmin status greatly enhanced during this reign. The caste system became rigid.
The Pallava kings were orthodox Hindus and worshipped Shiva and Vishnu. They were tolerant of Buddhism and Jainism too although both these faiths lost their relevance and popularity.
Kanchipuram was a great centre of learning. The University of Kanchi played a great part in the propagation of Aryan culture in the South. It can be said that the aryanisation of southern India was completed during the Pallava reign.
Vatsyayana who wrote Nyaya Bhashya was a teacher at Kanchi University (Ghatika).
Bharavi and Dandin lived in Pallava courts. Bharavi wrote Kiratarjuneeyam. Dandin composed Dashakumaracharita. Both were masterpieces.
The Vaishnava and Saiva literature flourished during this period.
Sanskrit was the chief language among the royals and the scholars.
Some of the inscriptions are in a mix of Tamil and Sanskrit.
Vedic traditions were superimposed on the local ones.
Many Tamil saints belonging to either Saivite (Nayannars) or the Vaishnavaite (Alwars) sects lived during the 6th and 7th centuries.

Saivite saints: Appar, Sambandar, Sundarar and Manikkawasagar.
Vaishnava saint: Andal (the only female Alwar saint).These saints composed hymns in Tamil.

Dancers were being maintained by all big temples.
There were three types of places during this time:
(i) Ur: where the peasants lived and were headed by a headman who collected and paid the taxes.
(ii) Sabha: land granted to Brahmins and was also called Agrahara villages. These were tax-free.
(iii) Nagaram: were merchants and traders resided.
During the Pallava period, Hindu culture spread to many places in Southeast Asia as well. Pallava influence is evident from the ancient architecture seen in Cambodia and Java.

≫ Pallava Architecture
Architecture

The beautiful and grand Pallava style of architecture can be divided into four phases or styles:
(i) Mahendra style (600-625 AD)
(ii) Mammala style (625-674 AD)
(iii) Rajasimha and Nadivarman style (674-800 AD)
(iv) Aparajita style (early 9th century)
The Pallava era witnesses a transition from rock-cut to free-standing temples.
Mahendravarman was a pioneer in rock-cut architecture. Mandagapattu rock-cut temple was the first rock-cut temple built by him.
Narasimhaverman II also known as Rajasimha built the Kanchi Kailasanatha Temple during the late 7th century AD.
The Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram was also built by Narasimhaverman II. It is the oldest structural temple in South India. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1984. It is also called the Seven Pagodas.
The Vaikuntha Perumal at Kanchipuram was built by Nandivarman II.
The Dravidian style of architecture begins with the Pallava reign.

Delhi Sultanate: Chronology

The Delhi Sultanate was an Islamic empire based in Delhi that stretched over large parts of the Indian subcontinent for 320 years (1206–1526). There was a total of five dynasties that ruled over the Delhi Sultanate sequentially: the Mamluk dynasty (1206–1290), the Khalji dynasty (1290–1320), the Tughlaq dynasty (1320–1414), the Sayyid dynasty (1414–1451), and the Lodi dynasty (1451–1526). On multiple occasions, the entire mass of India was being ruled under the Sultan, sometimes even stretching out to modern-day Pakistan, Bangladesh as well as some parts of southern Nepal. Delhi Sultanate has had a deep impact on the country’s culture and geography. covered large swathes of territory in modern-day India.

What was the Delhi Sultanate?

The Islamic era started with the invasion of Md. Bin Qasim captured the area of Sind in 712 AD. Initially, India's Islamic rule was fragile but changed drastically with the Turkish invasion.

Muhammad Ghori was one of the famous names in the Sultan's era. Muhammad Ghori invaded India seven times to expand its rule over the Indian subcontinent, specifically Delhi.
He fought two battles of Tarain. In the first battle, he lost badly to the era's most powerful Indian ruler, Prithviraj Chauhan.
In the second battle, he defeated Prithviraj Chauhan. He fought with approximately one lakh soldiers in that battle which outnumbered the Rajput army.
Thus, Muhammad Ghori is responsible for establishing the Islamic Empire in India. After the death of Muhammad Ghori in 1206 AD, Qutubuddin Aibak, with Mangburni in Central Asia and Yalduz in Lahore, started the Slave dynasty, which marked the beginning of the Delhi Sultanate.

Chronology of Kings

The Sultanate of Delhi (1206-1526) had five ruling dynasties:

(i) The Ilbari, 1206-90;

(ii) The Khalji, 1290-1320;

(iii) The Tughlaq, 1320-1414;

(iv) The Saiyid, 1414-51; and

(v) The Lodis 1451-1526.

Of these five dynasties the first three were of Turkish origin and the Lodis were Afghans.

Chronology of Kings

The Ilbari
(i) Qutbuddin Aibak (1206-10);

(ii) Aram Shah (1210-11) (for sometime, defeated and deposed by Iltutmish);

(iii) Iltutmish (1210-36);

(iv) Razia (1236-40)

(v) Bahram Shah (1240-42);

(vi) Alauddin Masud Shah (1242-46);

(vii) Nasiruddin Mahmud (1246-66);

(viii) Balban (1266-86);

(ix) Kaiqubad (1286-90)

The Khaljis
(i) Jalaluddin Firuz Khalji (1290-96);

(ii) Alauddin Khalji (1296-1316);

(iii) Qutbuddin Mubarak Shah Khalji (1316-20).

The Tughlaqs
(i) Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (1320-25);

(ii) Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325-51);

(iii) Firuz Shah Tughlaq (1351-88);

(iv) Ghiasuddin Tughlaq II; (1388-98)

(v) Abu Bakr;(1389-90)

(vi) Muhammad Shah; (1719-1748)

(vii) Alaudin Sikandar Shah (1388-1394)

(viii) Nasiruddin Mahmud (1394-1412).

The Saiyids
(i) Khizr Khan (1414-1421);

(ii) Mubarak Shah (1421-33);

(iii) Alauddin Alam Shah (1433-51).

The Lodis
(i) Bahlol Lodi (1451-89);

(ii) Sikandar Shah (1489-1517);

(iii) Ibrahim Lodi (1517-26).

Information about the prominent rulers

(A) Qutbuddin Aibak:

Qutub-ud-din Aibak

Qutub-ud-din Aibak, a Turkish slave of Muhammad Ghori, established the Slave dynasty in India after the Battle of Tarain.
Aibak became the governor of Ghori's Indian possessions and expanded the Turkish Sultanate's influence in North India.
Following Ghori's death, Aibak faced challenges from Tajuddin Yaldauz and Nasiruddin Qabacha, but he overcame them through displays of power and conciliatory measures.
He defeated Yaldauz, cut ties with Ghazni, and established the Slave dynasty and the Delhi Sultanate.
Aibak was known as "Lakh Baksh" or giver of lakhs for his generous donations.
Lahore became his capital, and he initiated the construction of the Qutub Minar, which was later completed by Iltumish.
Aibak died suddenly while playing Chaugan (horse polo) in around 1210 CE.

Points To Be Remembered
Firdausi was the court poet of Mahmud of Ghazni.
"Sovereignty is not conferred upon every man but is placed on the elect". --Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq
The turks used geometrical and floral designs, combining them with panels of inscriptions containing verses from the Quran.
The coming of the Khaljis to power was more than a dynastic change.
Their ascendancy is known as the Khalji revolution, because it marked the end of monu-polisation of power by the Turkish nobility and racial dictatorship.

(B) Iltutmish:

Iltutmish

Iltutmish, belonging to the Ilbari tribe, was sold as a slave to Aibak, who later made him his son-in-law.
Iltutmish was appointed as the Iqtadar of Gwalior by Aibak and later dethroned Aram Shah to become the Sultan.
He focused on securing his throne during the initial years, facing opposition from commanders like Yaldauz and Qabacha.
Iltutmish defeated Yaldauz in the Battle of Tarain and drove away Qabacha from Punjab.
When Chengiz Khan marched towards Central Asia, Iltutmish refused to provide asylum to Jalal-ud-din Mangabarni, which helped protect his empire from the Mongols.
He brought Bengal and Bihar back into the Delhi Sultanate, suppressed Rajput revolts, and expanded his control over various regions.
Iltutmish received recognition from the Abbasid Caliph, becoming the legal sovereign ruler of India.
He completed the construction of the Qutub Minar, the tallest stone tower in India.
Iltutmish introduced Arabic coinage, with the silver tanka becoming a standard coin in medieval India.
He organized the Turkan-i-Chahalgani, a ruling elite of forty military leaders known as the Forty.
Iltutmish patronized scholars and welcomed Sufi saints to his court.
He nominated his daughter as his successor.

Raziya Sultan

Raziya Sultan was the first and only female ruler during medieval India's Sultanate period.
She appointed Malik Jamal-ud-din Yaqut, an Abyssinian slave, as the master of the Royal horses.
The appointment of non-Turks to important positions and Raziya's abandonment of traditional female apparel caused resentment among Turkish nobles.
Raziya Sultan defied norms by holding court with her face uncovered, going hunting, and leading the army.
Altunia, the governor of Bhatinda, revolted against Raziya in around 1240 CE.
Raziya and Yaqut marched against Altunia, but Yaqut was murdered by Altunia's Turkish followers, and Raziya was taken prisoner.
The Turkish nobles placed Bahram, another son of Iltutmish, on the throne while Raziya was captive.
Raziya managed to win over Altunia and married him, proceeding to Delhi.
However, she was defeated and killed by Bahram Shah on the way.

(D) Balban: Balban

Balban's experience as a regent helped him understand the problems of the Delhi Sultanate, particularly the threat posed by the nobles known as "The Forty."
He believed in enhancing the power and authority of the monarchy to solve this problem.
Balban considered the Sultan as God's shadow on earth and the recipient of divine grace.
He introduced strict court discipline and customs like prostration and kissing the Sultan's feet to establish his superiority over the nobles.
Balban excluded non-Turks from administration and gave important positions to Turkish nobility.
He implemented a spy system to monitor the activities of the nobles.
Balban eliminated disloyal nobles through fair or foul means, sparing only the loyal ones.
Balban faced internal and external challenges, including the threat of Mongol attacks, revolting Indian rulers, provincial governors seeking independence, and frequent plundering by the Mewatis.
He adopted a stern policy, organized a strong central army, and established the Diwan-e-arz to handle these problems.
Balban focused on restoring law and order rather than expanding his kingdom, and he effectively dealt with the Mewati robbers.
Balban faced a revolt by Tughril Khan in Bengal, which was suppressed with the governor's beheading.
He sent his son Prince Mahmud to confront the Mongols, but the prince was killed in battle, causing a blow to Balban.
Balban died in around 1287 CE and is considered one of the key figures in the Delhi Sultanate, although he couldn't fully protect India from Mongol invasions.

Points To Be Remembered
During plunder of the rich port of Cambay, Ala-ud-din's commander Nusarat Khan acquired a Hindu turned Muslim slave Kafur (also known as hazardinari) who later on rose to become a great military general and the malik naib of Ala-ud-din.
During the first four years of Ala-ud-din's reign, the Mongol invaded the sultanate as many as six times and even plundered Delhi.
Ala-ud-din's motives for his southern expeditions were to secure the immense wealth.
One of the most important events of Jalaluddin's reign was the invasion of Devagiri, the capital of the Yadava kingdom in the Deccan, by Ali Gurshap (later Sultan Ala-ud-din Khalji), the nephew and son-in-law of the Sultan, and Governor of Kara.

(E) Ala-ud-din Khalji:

Ala-ud-din Khalji

(a) His conquests:
Gujarat, Ranthambhor, Chittor and other Rajput states, Malwa, Devagiri, Warangal etc. Conquest of Deccan under Malik Kafur. [Malik Kafur who was originally a Hindu was captured and converted into Islam during the conquest of Gujarat].
(b) Military reforms:
(i) Abolition of the ‘Iqtas’ of the royal troopers and the payment of their salaries in cash.
(ii) Introduction of ‘Dagh’ (branding of horses) and ‘Chehra’ (descriptive will of soldiers)
(iii) Regular muster of the army.
(c) Economic reforms:
(i) Increase of land revenue to 50% of the gross produce.
(ii) Resumption of several types of land-grants such as inam, waqf etc.
(iii) Appropriation of 4/5th share of the war booty to the states, leaving only 1/5 th to the soldiers.
(iv) Creation of a new department, viz, Diwan-i-Mustakharaj’ to enquire into the revenue arears and to collect them.
(v) Establishment of separate markets for food-grains cloth, horses, fruits etc. and put all that under strict regulations.

Points To Be Remembered
Commercial horticulture was popularised by Firuz Shah Tughlaq
Iqta was introduced to set administrative precedents.
The first Sultan who introduced a purely Arabic coinage and adopted standard coins, the silver Tanka was Iltutmish.
Balban asserted “Kingship knows no Kinship.”
At the time of the Arab conquest of Sind, the Caliphate was headed by Khalifa Walid of Umayyad dynasty.
Muhammad-bin-Qasim, the person who was successful in conquering Sind in 711-12 A.D. was the son-in-law of Hajjaj.
In 715 A.D. Muhammad-bin-Qasim was recalled from India and executed by the New Khalifa, Sulaiman.
Firuz Tughlaq ordered the inclusion of the names of all the previous Delhi Sultans, except that of Aibak, in the Khutba.
“Sovereignty is not conferred upon every man but is placed on the elect”. These words are ascribed to Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq.
Alauddin Khilji resumed several types of land grants such as Inams, Waqfs, etc.
Dahar, the Hindu ruler of Sind, was defeated and deposed by the Arab invaders.

(F) Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq:

Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq

He was a very attractive character in the history of medieval times because of his ambitious schemes and novel experiments. However, his novel experiments and enterprises failed miserably as they were far ahead of their time.
He introduced many reforms:
- Transfer of Capital – Muhammad bin Tughlaq wanted to shift his capital from Delhi to Devagiri so that he might be able to control south India better. He forcibly moved the entire population to the new capital, Devagiri which was renamed as Daulatabad. After two years, the Sultan abandoned Daulatabad and shifted back to Delhi due to the scarcity of water supply in Daulatabad. The distance between the two places was more than 1500 kilometres and many people died during the rigorous journey in summer.
- Token Currency – In c. 1329 CE, Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq introduced a token currency, made of copper to replace gold and silver coins. It was modelled based on the Chinese example (Kublai Khan issued paper money in China). Very few people exchanged gold/silver for copper and the tokens were easy to forge which led to heavy losses. Later on, Muhammad bin Tughlaq repealed his verdict and all coins were redeemed in gold/silver, making the treasury empty.
- Taxation in Doab – The failure of the above two experiments resulted in a huge loss of money. In order to improve the financial condition, Muhammad bin Tughlaq increased the land revenue on the farmers of the doab land between the Ganga and Yamuna rivers. It was an excessive and arbitrary step on the farmers. A severe famine struck the region at that time which made the farmers revolt. However, the harsh steps taken by Muhammad bin Tughlaq crushed the revolt.
- Agricultural Reforms – He launched a scheme by which takkavi loans (loans for cultivation) were given to the farmers to buy seeds and to extend cultivation. He set up a separate department for agriculture, Diwan-i-amir-Kohi. A model farm under the state was created in an area of 64 square miles for which the government spent around seventy lakh tankas. This experiment was further continued by Firoz Tughlaq.
Muhammad bin Tughlaq was the only Delhi Sultan who had received a comprehensive literary, religious and philosophical education.
He was very tolerant in religious matters. He maintained diplomatic relations with far off countries like Iran, Egypt and China. The famous traveller Ibn Batuta (author of Safarnama Rehla) visited India during this period (c. 1334 CE) and was appointed Qazi at Delhi for a period of eight years.
During the latter part of Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s reign, the kingdom witnessed a spate of rebellions by the nobles and provincial governors. The Sultanate of Madurai was established due to the rebellion of Hassan Shah. In c. 1336 CE, the Vijaynagara kingdom was founded. In c. 1347 CE, the Bahmani kingdom was established. The governors of Sindh, Multan and Oudh rose in revolt against the authority of Muhammad bin Tughlaq. In Gujarat, Taghi revolted against the Sultan who spent nearly three years chasing him.
Muhammad bin Tughlaq died in c.1351 CE due to the worsening of his health condition. According to Baduani, the Sultan was freed from his people and the people from the Sultan. According to Barani, Muhammad bin Tughlaq was a mixture of opposites. His reign marked the beginning of the process of its decline.

(G) Firuz Tughlaq:

Firuz Tughlaq:

After the death of Muhammad bin Tughlaq in c.1351 CE, Firoz Shah Tughlaq was chosen as the Sultan by the nobles.
He appointed Khan-i-Jahan Maqbal, a Telugu Brahmin convert as wazir (Prime Minister). He helped the Sultan in his administration and maintained the prestige of the Sultanate during this period.

Military Campaigns

After ascending the throne, he focused on strengthening his position over north India instead of claiming his authority over south India and Deccan. He led two expeditions to Bengal which were unsuccessful and as a result, Bengal became free from the control of the Delhi Sultanate.
Firoz Shah Tughlaq also attacked Jajnagar (modern Orissa) and collected large booty from the temples (such as the Puri Jagannath temple). He also marched against Nagarkot and made its ruler pay tributes. During this campaign, Firoz Shah collected 1300 Sanskrit manuscripts from the Jwalamukhi temple library and Arizuddin Khan translated these into the Persian language. Firoz Shah then marched against Thatta (Sindh region) and crushed a rebellion there.

Administrative Reforms

He ran his administration in accordance with the advice of the ulemas. He pleased the nobles and assured hereditary succession to their properties. Thus, the iqta system was revived and was also made hereditary.
He levied taxes as per the teachings of Islam. Jiziya was imposed on non-Muslims. The special tax on 28 items was discarded by him since they were against the laws of Islam. He showed intolerance towards Shia Muslims and Sufis. He regarded Hindus as second-grade citizens and in this respect, he was the precursor of Sikander Lodi and Aurangzeb.
He was the first sultan to impose an irrigation tax. But at the same time, he also built a number of irrigation canals and wells. The longest canal was about 200 km in length from Sutlej to Hansi. Another canal was between Yamuna and Hissar.
During his reign, there were around 1200 fruit gardens in and around Delhi generating more revenue.
He developed royal factories called karkhanas in which thousands of slaves were employed. He also increased the number of slaves by capturing the defeated soldiers and young persons. There were around one lakh eighty thousand slaves during his reign.
New towns (around 300) were built during his reign. The famous one being Firozabad near Red Fort (now called Firoz Shah Kotla). Monuments like Qutb Minar and Jama Masjid were repaired and Ashokan pillars from Meerut and Topara were brought to Delhi during his reign.
Diwan-i-Khairat, a new department was established to support orphans and widows. Free hospitals like Dar-ul-Shifa and marriage bureaus for poor Muslims were also established.
Firoz patronised scholars like Barani who wrote Tarikh-i-Firoz Shah, and Fatawa-i-Jahandari and Khwaja Abdul Malik Islami who wrote Futah-us- Sulatin. He himself authored the book, Futuhat-e-Firozshahi.
Firoz Shah Tughlaq died in c. 1388 CE and after that, the struggle for power between the Sultan and nobles started again. His successors (like Muhammad Khan, Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq Shah Ⅱ, Abu Bakr Shah, Nasiruddin Muhammad) had to face the rebellions of the slaves created by Firoz.

(H) Sikander Lodi:

Sikander Lodi

He was the greatest of the three Lodhi sovereigns. He brought the whole of Bihar under his control and many Rajput chiefs were defeated. He attacked Bengal, forced its ruler to conclude a treaty with him, and extended his kingdom from Punjab to Bihar.
He was a good administrator, he built roads and many irrigation facilities were provided for the benefit of the peasantry.
He introduced the Gazz-i-Sikandari, a new measurement yardstick and a system of auditing of accounts.
Despite having applaudable qualities, he was a bigot and was intolerant towards non-Muslims. Many temples were destroyed and he re-imposed Jiziya on non-Muslims.
In c. 1504 CE, he founded Agra and wrote Persian verses under the name Gulrukhi.

The Idea of Kingship

During the reign of Iltutmish, the position of the sultan was not considered much higher than that of a noble. He treated the great Turkish nobles as his equals.

Iltutmish

Balban placed the monarchy at a higher level than the nobility.
Ala-ud-din Khalji allowed himself to be dominated by dreams of exacted monarchical power.
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq was extremely social in relations with the nobles.
In regard to obedience to the Shariat and submission to the guidance of the Ulema, Firuz Tughlaq reversed the policy of Ala-ud-din and thereby weakened the monarchy.
Under the Lodis, kings assumed a new complexion; the racial basis, which had been weakened by the Khaljis and the Tughlaqs, was restored.

Points To Be Remembered

Bhima-II, the Solanki ruler of Gujarat, was the first Indian ruler to defeat Muhammad of Ghur.
The Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque in Delhi of the period of the Slave Dynasty was originally a Vishnu temple.
Bhaktiyar Khalji, the military officer of Muhammad of Ghur, was responsible for bringing Bihar and Bengal under Muslim rule.
The original name of Balban was Ulugh Khan.
Nasiruddin Khugrau was the only Hindu convert to Islam to sit on the throne of Delhi Sultanate.
The Turks eschewed the representation of human and animal figures in the buildings.
They used geometrical and floral designs, combining them with panels of inscriptions containing verses from the Quran. The combination of these decorative devices was called “Arabesque”.

The Nobility

In the thirteenth century, the nobility was composed of persons of foreign origin but they belonged to two distinct groups: the Turkish slave-nobles and the non-Turkish (taziq) foreigners of high birth who immigrated to India from Central Asia and West Asia in search of fortune.
Of the two groups of nobles, the Turks were stronger and they claimed a monopoly of high offices in the state.
Alauddin ignored the racial and hereditary claims of the Turks and conferred high offices on nobles whom he considered efficient and trustworthy, but he tried to break their solidarity by stern measures.
With a view to weakening the old nobility, Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq set up a new order of office-holders of heterogeneous racial origins.
The reign of Firuz Tughlaq was a period of harmony between the Crown and the nobility.
Under the Lodis, the Sultanate became, in effect, on the partnership between the crown and the mobility.

Points To Be Remembered

The Delhi Sultans are credited with introducing the institution of ‘Dalals’ in India to facilitate commercial transaction on a large scale.
With the introduction of sericulture in India by the Turks, the Indian silk industry received a boost.
The origins of differentiation between the Hindustani and the Carnatic school of music can probably be traced to the period of the Delhi Sultanate.
The Delhi Sultan who introduced plebian elements in his nobility was Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq.
Firuz Tughlaq ordered the translation of a large number of Hindu religious works from Sanskrit to Persian

≫ Mamluk Origins

Mamluk Dynasty is also called the Slave Dynasty. Mamluk literally means ‘owned’ and it refers to a powerful military caste called Mamluks which originated in the 9th century CE in the Islamic Empire of the Abbasid caliphs.
The Mamluks wielded military and political power in Egypt, Iraq and India. Although they were slaves, they were held in high regard by their masters, and they were mostly generals and soldiers who fought for their masters.
Mamluk Dynasty was established in Delhi by Qutb ud-Din Aibak.

≫ Slave Dynasty Introduction

Established by Qutb ud-Din Aibak.
Dynasty lasted from 1206 to 1290.
It was the first of the dynasties to rule as the Delhi Sultanate.
Dynasty ended when Jalal ud din Firuz Khilji overthrew the last Mamluk ruler Muiz ud din Qaiqabad in 1290.
Dynasty was succeeded by the Khilji (or Khalji) dynasty, the second dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate.

≫ Qutb ud-Din Aibak (Reign: 1206 – 1210)

The first ruler of the Mamluk Dynasty.
Born to a Turkish family in Central Asia.
Sold as a slave to Muhammad Ghori, the ruler of Ghor in Afghanistan.
Aibak rose up the ranks and became Ghori’s trusted general and commander.
He was given the charge of Ghori’s Indian possessions after 1192.
When Ghori was assassinated, Aibak declared himself Sultan of Delhi in 1206.
Started construction of the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque in Delhi. This is one of the first Islamic monuments in northern India.
He began the construction of Qutb Minar in Delhi.
He was also known as Lakh Bash (Giver of Lakhs) for his generosity. However, he was also responsible for the destruction and desecration of many Hindu temples.
He reigned till his death in 1210. He was said to have been trampled to death by a horse.
He was succeeded by Aram Shah.

≫ Iltutmish (Reign: 1211 – 1236)

Aram Shah was a weak ruler. It is not clear whether he was a son of Aibak or not. He was conspired against by a group of nobles who invited Shamsuddin Iltutmish to be the ruler.
Iltutmish was a son-in-law of Aibak. He ruled Ghurid regions of northern India.
He was a Turkic slave born in Central Asia.
Iltutmish was the greatest of the slave rulers of Delhi. He shifted his capital from Lahore to Delhi.

≫ Iltutmish – Invasions & Policies

Iltutmish’s forces captured Bihar in the 1210s and invaded Bengal in 1225.
During the first half of the 1220s, Iltutmish neglected Indus River Valley, which was contested between the Mongols, the Khwarazm kings, and Qabacha. Post the decline of the Mongol and the Khwarazmian threat, Qabacha took over the region, but Iltutmish invaded his territory during 1228-1229.
He defended his empire against Mongol invaders and also resisted the Rajputs.
In 1221, he stopped an invasion led by Genghis Khan.
He completed the construction of the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque and the Qutb Minar.
He set up administrative machinery for the kingdom.
He built mosques, waterworks and other amenities at Delhi, making it fit to be the seat of power.
He introduced the two coins of the Sultanate, the silver tanka and the copper jital.
Also introduced the Iqtadari system in which the kingdom was divided into Iqtas which were assigned to nobles in exchange of salary.
He died in 1236 and was succeeded by his daughter Razia Sultana as he did not consider his sons equal to the task.

≫ Razia Sultana (Reign: 1236 – 1240)

Born in 1205 as Iltutmish’s daughter.
Was given a sound education by her father.
She was the first and last Muslim woman to rule over Delhi.
Also known as Razia al-Din.
Before ascending to the throne of Delhi after her father’s death, the reign was briefly handed over to her half-brother Rukn ud-din Firuz. But after Firuz’s assassination within 6 months of his ascendency, the nobles agreed to place Razia on the throne.
She was known as an efficient and just ruler.
She was married to Malik Ikhtiar-ud-din Altunia, the governor of Bathinda.
She was reportedly killed by her brother’s forces.
Her brother Muizuddin Bahram Shah succeeded her.

≫ Ghiyas ud din Balban (Reign: 1266 – 1287)

The next notable ruler after Razia.
Ninth Sultan in the Mamluk dynasty.
He was the wazir of the grandson of Iltutmish, Nasir-ud-din-Mahmud.
Born of Turkish origins, his original name was Bahauddin.
He was purchased as a slave by Iltutmish. He rose up the ranks quickly.
He carried out successful military campaigns as an officer.
After Nasir’s death, Balban declared himself the Sultan as the former did not have any male heirs.
He carried military and civil reforms in administration which earned him the position of the greatest Sultanate ruler after Iltutmish and Alauddin Khalji.
Balban was a strict ruler and his court was the symbol of austerity and strict obedience to the emperor. He even demanded that people prostrate before the king.
He laid out severe punishments to the slightest of offences by his courtiers.
He had a spy system to keep his nobles in check.
He introduced the Persian festival of Navroz in India.
Punjab saw large-scale conversions during his rule.
After his death, his grandson Qaiqubad succeeded him at the throne of Delhi.
Qaiqubad died of a stroke in 1290 and was succeeded by his three-year-old son Shamsuddin Kayumars.
Kayumars was murdered by Jalal ud-Din Firuz Khalji, thus ending the Mamluk Dynasty to replace it with the Khalji Dynasty.

≫ The reason behind the decline of the Mamluk Dynasty
The major reasons associated with the decline of the Mamluk dynasty are:

Internal friction between the members of the dynasty damaged the long term integrity of the sultanate.
Many of the rulers were weak to handle the kingdom for long
Improper administration management led to the disruption of the government.

≫ List of Slave dynasty Rulers

Mamluk Dynasty came to an end when the last ruler Muiz-ud-din Muhammad Qaiqabad was thrown out of the rule by Khilji ruler Jalal ud din Firuz Khalji.

Khalji Dynasty: Alauddin Khalji

Introduction

The Khiljis served under the Ilbari dynasty of Delhi. Malik Firuz was the founder of the Khilji Dynasty who was originally the Ariz-I-Mumalik appointed by Kaiqubad during the days of the decline of the Ilbari Dynasty.

Important Rulers of the Khilji Dynasty

The important rulers of the Khilji dynasty are stated below:

Jalal-ud-din Firoz Khilji (1290-1296 A.D.)

He was the founder of Khilji Dynasty.
He was also called as “Clemency Jalal-uddin” as he followed peace and wanted to rule without violence.
Jalal-ud-din Firoz Khilji

(i) Domestic Policies of Jalal-ud-din Firoz Khilji

He suppressed Malik Chhajju’s revolt at Kara
He appointed Ala-ud-din Khilji as the Governor of Kara. Alauddin was his son-in-law and also nephew.

(ii) Mongol Invasion

In 1292 A.D. Jalal-ud-din defeated the Mongols who had come up to Sunam.

(iii) End of Jalal-ud-din

Jalal-ud-din was treacherously murdered by Ala-ud-din Khilji his son-in-law.
Jalal-ud-din’s policy of peace was not liked by many.

Ala-ud-din Khilji (1296-1316 A.D.)

In 1296 A.D. Ala-ud-din Khilji succeeded Jalal-ud-din Firoz Khilji and ascended the throne.
Ala-ud-din Khilji

(i) Ala-ud-din Khilji Invasions in the North

Ala-ud-din Khiliji’s generals namely, Ulugh Khan and Nusrat Khan conquered Gujarat.
He captured Ranthambore and killed Hamir Deva its ruler.
He also captured Malwa, Chittor, Dhar, Mandu, Ujjain, Marwar, Chanderi and Jalor.

(ii) Ala-ud-din Khilji Invasions in the South

He was the first Sultan who attacked South India.
He sent his confidante and general Malik Kafur against the rulers of the south.
Prataprudra-II of Warangal, Ramachandra Deva, the Yadava king of Devagiri, and Vira Ballala-III the Hoysala king were defeated.
He constructed a mosque in Rameswaram.
The kingdoms of the south acknowledged the power of Alauddin Khilji and paid his monetary tributes.

(iii) The Mongol Invasion

Ala-ud-din successfully resisted the Mongol invasion more than 12 times.

(iv) Domestic Policies of Alauddin Khilji

Ala-ud-din followed the Divine Right Theory of Kingship.
He introduced four ordinances to prevent repeated revolts.
He impounded pious grants and free grants of lands
He restructured the spy system.
He banned social parties and wine.
He introduced a permanent standing army.
He started the system of branding of horses and descriptive roster of individual soldiers to inhibit corruption.
He fixed the prices of necessary commodities which were below the normal market rates.
He strictly prohibited black marketing.
Revenue was collected in cash and not in kind.
He followed discriminatory policies towards the Hindus and imposed the Jizya, a grazing tax and a house tax on the Hindu community.

(v) Marketing System

Officers called Diwan-i-riyasat were appointed in the offices called Shahana-i-mandi to standardize the market.
Merchants should have to register themselves in the office (Shahana-i-mandi) before selling their goods at the fixed rates.

(vi) Ala-ud-din-Khilji’s Estimate

He was the first to bring the standing army system.
He constructed Alai Darwaza, the Palace of a thousand pillars and the Fort of Siri.

(vii) Successors after Ala-ud-din-Khilji

Qutb-ud-din Mubarak Shah (1316-1320 A.D.)
Nasir-ud-din Khusrav Shah (1320A.D.)
His successors were weak.

End of the Dynasty

Ala-ud-din Khilji died in 1316 A.D.
Successors of Ala-ud-din-Khilji were weak rulers.
Eventually, in 1320 A.D. the Governor of Punjab Ghazi Malik led a group of nobles, conquered Delhi and captured the throne.
Ghazi Malik assumed the name ‘Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq’ at Delhi and founded the Tughluq Dynasty, a dynasty of rulers.

The Mughal Empire: Polity

The Mughal Empire- Polity

Babur

Defeated Ibrahim Lodi at Panipat in 1526.
Was a descendent of Timur on his father’s side and of Chengiz Khan on the side of his mother.
Umar Shaikh Mirza was his father.
After defeating Ibrahim Lodi he had won a decisive victory against the Afghans.
Defeated the Rana of Mewar, Sangram Singh or Rana Sanga on March 16, 1527, at Khanua.
In 1528, he captured Chanderi from a Rajput Chief Medini Rai and a year later he defeated the Afghan chiefs under Mahmud Lodi in the battle of Ghagra in Bihar.
A detailed record of Babur’s career is found in his autobigraphy—Tuzuk-i-Baburi or Baburnamah—which he wrote in his mother-tongue (Turki).

Humayun

Humayun ascended the throne at Agra, on the 29th December, 1530 A.D.
Humayun gave large territories of his father’s dominions to his three brothers and two cousins.
Karan was confirmed in his possession of Kabul and Qandhar.
Askari got Sambhal. Alwar and Mewat were allotted to Hindal.
His first step was the seizure of kalinjar.
He defeated the Afghans in 1532 A.D. at the battle of Dauhria.
Sher Shah proved to be the most formidable enemy of Humayun, and after defeating the latter at Chausa and Kanauj in 1540, completely shattered his prospects.
After his final defeat at the hands of Sher Shah Suri the Mughal empire in India was temporarily eclipsed and Humayun had to pass nearly fifteen years (1540-55) in exile.
But shortly after regaining the empire Humayun died in an accident.

Akbar

Akbar was coronated at Kalanaur.
Within a few months of Akbar’s accession, Hemu, the wazir of Muhammad Adil Shah, occupied the country from Bayana to Delhi, including Agra, and assumed the title of Vikramaditya.
In November 1556, the Mughal army under Bairam Khan moved towards Delhi and defeated and killed Hemu in the second battle of Panipat.
During the years 1556-60 Bairam Khan enjoyed the supreme position in the state as the emperor’s guardian and Prime Minister.
Concentration of power in his hands, his arrogance and arbitrary methods led to the fall of Bairam Khan in 1560.

Conquests

Malwa was conquered in 1561 from Baz Bahadur.
Fortrees of Merta in Marwar was captured after a brief seige in 1562.
Chandrasen, the ruler of Marwar, submitted to Akbar in 1563.
In 1567 Akbar himself conducted the seige of the fort of Chittor, fell next year (1568) after a desperate resistance.
Ranthambhor submitted in 1569 and Marwar and Bikaner in 1570.
Battle of Haldighati between Rana Pratap Singh and Akbar in 1576.
Akbar himself led an expedition to Gujarat in 1572 and completed it by the seige of Surat in 1573.
In 1574-75 Bihar and Bengal were conquered from the Afghan chief Daud.
After the death of Muhammad Hakim in 1586, Kabul was annexed to the Mughal empire.
In 1586, Kashmir too was annexed to the empire, and in 1593, as a preclude to the conquest of Kandhar, the whole of Sindh was annexed.
In 1594 Kandahar was conquered from Persia.
In 1601, the fort of Asirgarh was captured and Khandesh was annexed to the Mughal empire.

His liberal measures

In 1562 he passed a decree that in course of war the Hindu non-combatants and the families of Combatants were not to be made prisoners, reduced to slavery or converted to Islam.
In 1563 he abolished the pilgrim tax.
In 1564 he abolished Jeziyah
He opened a translation department for translation of Sanskrit and other works into Persian.
The use of beef was forbidden and later, in 1583, killing of certain animals on particular days was forbidden.

Religious Movements

The movement of non-sectarian path: preached by Dadu in Gujarat; his refusal to identify himself either with Hindus or Muslims; his assertion of indivisibility of the Supreme Reality.
Satnami Movement: Foundation of a new sect, called Satnamis (their god being Satnam) by Birbhan. Their rejection of caste system, idol-worship, and their maintenance of high standards of morals.
Narayanian Movement: Founder-Haridas; their belief in one God, Narayan or the supreme being.
Dharma Movement: In Maharashtra by several saints who worshipped Vithoba; their rejection of the caste system.
Sufi Movement: Belief in Tauhid or in the unity of Godhead; role of Dara Shikoh in spreading the idea of Tauhid.
Reactionary Movements: Among the orthodox Hindus spearheaded by Raghunandan of Navadwipa in Bengal; among the orthodox Muslims-spearheaded by Shaikh Ahmad Sarhindi. for the general welfare and better government of the country.
Rebellion of Jahangir’s son Khusran at Lahore (1606).
The rebellious prince was captured, blinded, confined and subsequently killed by Khurram in 1622.
The fifth Sikh Guru Arjan with whom the rebel prince had stayed at Tarn Taran and also received his blessings, was first fined by the government, but as he refused to pay the fine he was sentenced to death.
The first military expedition undertaken by Jahangir was against Rana Amar Singh, son of Rana Pratap of Mewar.
Rana Amar Singh came to terms with the Mughals in 1615.
The greatest failure of Jahangir’s reign was the loss of Kandahar to Persia.
In 1613, Nur Jahan was promoted to the status of Padshah Begum, coins were struck in her name and on all farmans her name was attached to the imperial signature.
Nur Jahan's influence secured high positions for her father who got the title of Itimaduddaulah.
Jahangir’s reign has been vividly portrayed by two representatives of King James I of England, namely, Captain Hawkins (1608-11) and Sir Thomas Roe (1615-19).
They visited his court to gain favourable concessions for English trade with India.
As a result of the efforts of Thomas Roe English factories were established at Surat, Agra, Ahmedabad and Broach.

Shah Jahan

At the time of Jahangir’s death in October 1627, Shah Jahan was in the Deccan.
The first three years of Shah Jahan’s reign were disturbed by the rebellions of the Bundela Chief Juhar Singh and of Khan Jahan Lodi.
He ousted the Portuguese from Hugli and occupied it in 1632.
During his period the Nizam Shahi Kingdom of Ahmadnagar was finally annexed to the Mughal empire .
In 1636 Aurangzeb, son of Shah Jahan, was appointed the Mughal viceroy in the Deccan.
The territories in his charge were divided into four subahs.
(a) Khandesh (b) Berar (c) Telengana (d) Ahmadnagar.
In 1639, Ali Mardan Khan the disgruntled Persian Governor of Kandahar, delived the fort to the Mughals without fighting.
In 1649 Shah Abbas II of Persia wrested Kandahar from the Mughals.
Seige of Golconda and Bijapur in 1656 and 1657.
At the time of Shah Jahan’s sickness in September 1657, his eldest son Dara was at his beside in Agra, Shuja was governor in Bengal, Aurangzeb was viceroy in the Deccan and the youngest Murad was governor in Gujarat.
Many foreign travellers who visited India during the reign of Shah Jahan, have left a vivid account of his reign.
Of these two Frenchman Bernier and Travenier and an Italian adventurer Manucci, the author of the Storio Dor Mogor, are specially noteworthy.

Aurangzeb

Aurangzed had claimed the throne as the champion of Sunni orthodoxy.
In 1659 he issued a number of ordinances to restore the Muslim law of conduct according to the teachings of the Quran.
He discontinued the practice of inscribing the Kalima on the coins and abolished the celebration of the new year’s day (nauroz).
Muhtasibs were appointed in all big cities to enforce the Quranic law and put down the practices forbidden in it.
The ceremony of weighing the emperor on his birthdays and the practice of Jharokadarshan were also discontinued.
In 1668 the observance of Hindu festivals was prohibited.
In 1679-70 the Jat peasantry of the region of Mathura rose under the leadership of Gokala.
In 1672, the Satanami peasants in the Punjab, and the Bundelas under the leadership of Champat

Facts To Be Remembered
Maham Anaga was Akbar’s foster-mother.
Akbar was successful in crushing a rebellion led by Uzbek nobles.
Abdul Nabi was the corrupt chief qazi of Akbar.
Chavand was the new capital of Rana Pratap.
Chandrasen, the ruler of Marwar, waged a guerilla warfare against Akbar.
Singhasan Battisi, the Atharva Veda and the Bible were translated into Persian during the reign of Akbar.
The Kabul-Ghazni-Qandhar line was established by Akbar.
The peasants who owned the land they tilled were called Khudkasht.
Population in India at the beginning of Seventeenth century was about 125 million.
During Akbar’s reign, Rajputs formed the largest section of the Hindu nobility, and among Rajputs, the Kachhwahas predominated.
Hindus formed 33% of Aurangzeb’s nobility. Of the Hindu nobles, the Marathas formed more than half.
Jahangir introduced the fashion of wearing costly jewels in their ears after piercing them.
During Mughal India, the Chettis formed the trading community of South India.
The fifth Guru Arjun Das started a system of collecting offerings from the Sikh at the rate of one-tenth of their income.
Fobidden cesses were called abwabs under the Mughals.
Jagannath and Janardan Bhatta were famous musicians who belonged to Shah Jahan’s court.
Akbar gave Raja Birbal the title of Kavi-priya.
Bihari Lal was the poet of Shah Jahan’s reign. He wrote Satsai which is a collection of 700 dohas and sortas.
An important historical work of Shahjahan’s reign is the Amal-i-Salih of Muhammad Salih.
Mirza Hossain Ali composed songs in Bengali in honour of Goddess Kali.
If on earth be an Eden of Bliss
It is this, it is this, none but this” — Amir Khusrau

Rai and Chhatrasal Bundela in Bundelkhand.

These rebellions were the outcome of the agrarian tension and the reactionary policies of Aurangzeb.
Aurangzeb caused serious rift in the Mughal-Rajput alliance by his policy of annexation of Marwar in 1679.
In 1675 he ordered the arrest and execution of the ninth Sikh Guru Teg Bahadur, which led to the creation of Khalsa and the growth of Sikh military under the Sikh Guru Govind Singh.

Sher Khan

Sher Shah Suri was the son of a small Afghan Jagirdar near Jaunpur. The title of 'Sher Khan' was given to him by his patron for killing a tiger. He joined Babur's army and studied the methods of Mughal warfare. He defeated Humayun and came to power.

Sher KhanReforms in administration

Sher Shah Suri became the ruler of North India. He waged successful wars in Malwa, Rajasthan and Sind. He was a wise administrator and reorganised the military and the revenue system, improved communications, built roads and introduced the new coin, rupia. His sarais made travelling easy and safe.

Trade and Commerce

To prevent the officers' undue influence, he used to transfer them every two to three years. The emperor was the head of every branch of government. He personally supervised all officers' work from the highest to the lowest. This helped in trade and commerce and served as dak chowks.

Justice

Sher Shah Suri was kept informed about the developments in the empire's defferent parts. He administered justice sternly and fairly and introduced the system of local responsibility. The foundation of administrative system laid by him was continued even after his death with some changes.

Revenue Policy

Sher Shah Suri's weak successors enabled Humayun to regain the last empire. Sher Shah Suri was liberal in his religious outlook. His revenue policy was adopted not only by Akbar but also by the British.

Empire of Sher Khan

Death of Sher Shah

Sher Shah Suri was killed a gunpowder explsion while laying the siege to kalinjar fort in 1545. Sher Shah Suri died in 1545 after a short rule of five years but he established a vast empire and built up a fine and strong administration. The tomb he built for himself at Sasaram is a masterpiece of architecture.

Women Rulers in Medieval India

Rudrama Devi was a monarch of the Kakatiya dynasty in the Deccan Plateau with capital at Warangal of present-day Telangana from 1263 until her death. She was one of the few women to rule as monarch in the Indian subcontinent and promoted a male image.
Akka Mahadevi was a prominent figure of the Veerashaiva Bhakti movement of 12th century Karnataka. Her Vachanas in Kannada, a form of didactic poetry, are considered her most notable contribution to Kannada Bhakti literature.
A few centuries later, Meera in northern India, became a leading Hindu mystic poet of the Bhakti movement.
The Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent brought changes to Indian society. The position of Indian women in society deteriorated during this period.
Jauhar which became a custom among Rajputs was performed when they were faced with invaders like Turco-Afghans from the 11th century to avoid being enslaved and lose their honor or be tortured.
During the conquest of Sindh by Muhammad bin Qasim, Rani Bai and other Rajput women had performed the Jauhar.
In Chittor Fort alone, it was committed thrice by many of the wives and children of the Rajput soldiers who died in battles at Chittorgarh Fort. The first time was led by Rani Padmini, wife of Ratnasimha, who was killed in the battle in 1303, and later, by Rani Karnavati in 1537.
The zenana was a Persian tradition brought in by the invading Muslims. Although originally only a feature of Muslim dynasties' courts, it was also adopted by Hindu royal families. While separate spaces for women sometimes did exist in the ancient period, they didn't become a norm until the Muslim period.
Under Akbar, there was a marked focus on secluding women and creating harems. Mughals' policy was also emulated later by others like Chakma Raj and the Sikh kingdoms in Punjab.
A Muslim woman's rights were impacted by the custom of hijab or purdah in Persian. Despite this, women took part in arts, writing, rites, and rode horses while their habits sometimes swayed from the ulama's opinion. The hijab and burqah were practice in West Asia and became a regal practice under the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire.
Hindus in North India later emulated the practice of purdah. The queens often played a part in imperial politics behind the scene. Some communities who adopted Islam have continued their ancestral matrilinear traditions like the Mappila in South India. Ibn Battuta in the Muslim principality of Hannaur witnessed 13 schools teaching Muslim women. Mullahs taught both genders, however, lower-classes were more uneducated.
The observance of purdah was not strict among the Turks. Among the reasons considered for its use are that it represented an elite status during the Muslim period and was also used to guard women and men against looking at each other with lust.
During this period the rulers and nobility sometimes engaged in debauchery and excesses.
Muslim nobility often engaged in lustful debauchery, concubines were not regarded as a shameful act, but a wealth status.
However, purdah was imposed by sultan Firuz Tughlaq. Akbar made it a rule that those women roaming without a veil be made a prostitute. He also directed that they should live within their house and travel under a male's supervision.
Muslim women thus suffered greatly and often denied an education. The upper-class women were better off due to private education and entertainment. The purdah system became weaker as the Mughal empire declined. However, there were women often becoming prominent in the fields of politics, literature, education, and religion also during this period. Razia Sultana (1205–1240) became the only woman monarch to have ever ruled Delhi.
The Gond Rani Durgavati (1524–1564) ruled for fifteen years before losing her life in a battle with Mughal emperor Akbar's general Asaf Khan in 1564. Chand Bibi defended Ahmednagar against the powerful Mughal forces of Akbar in the 1590s.
Jehangir's wife Nur Jehan effectively wielded imperial power and was recognized as the real power behind the Mughal throne. The Mughal princesses Jahanara and Zebunnissa were well-known poets, and also influenced the ruling powers.
Abbakka Chowta was the first Tuluva Queen of Ullal who fought the Portuguese in the latter half of the 16th century. Shivaji's mother, Jijabai, was queen regent because of her ability as a warrior and an administrator. Tarabai was another female Maratha ruler.
Nur Jahan
Keladi Chennamma fought against Bijapur Sultanate and defying Mughal emperor Aurangzeb. Onake Obavva was a woman who fought Hyder Ali's forces single-handedly with a pestle (Onake) in the kingdom of Chitradurga.
Mai Sukhan, with her small Sikh forces, strongly defended the town of Amritsar against external forces. While Velu Nachiyar was one of the earliest Indian queens to fight against the British colonial power in India.
Kittur Chennamma was the Rani of Kittur, who led an armed force against the British East India Company in 1824 in defiance of the doctrine of a lapse to maintain Indian control over the region was defeated in the third war and died imprisoned. In South India, many women administered villages, towns, and divisions, and ushered in new social and religious institutions.
Lakshmibai, the Rani of Maratha-ruled Jhansi, one of the principal leaders of the rebellion who earlier had lost her kingdom as a result of the Doctrine of Lapse.

The Sur Empire

The first half of the 16th century AD witnessed the Afghan- Mughal contest for power in the Sub-continent.
After defeating Humayun, Sher Shah Suri emerged as a powerful Pashtun Afghan ruler and established the Sur Empire.

The Empire’s strength lay in the great administrative capacity and reforms of the ruler, aimed at the benefit of the people.
The Empire boasts of extremely well thought governmental systems and policies as well as great architectural marvels.

After Ibrahim Lodi was defeated by Babur in 1526 AD (first battle of Panipat), the Afghan chiefs who were still powerful, gathered together under the leadership of Sher Shah Suri to mark their discontent against the alien rule.
As a result, the Sur Empire of Pashtun origin (the tribal house of Sur) came to power and ruled a massive territory of the Northern part of South Asia from 1540-1556 AD, with their capital as Delhi.
The empire’s major strength is in the fact that it disturbed the hold of the Mughal Empire under Humayun.

The Sur Dynasty controlled the major territories of Mughals east to west, from the current day’s eastern Afghanistan to Bangladesh.
Establishing a stronghold over the throne for nearly 17 years, the Sur Empire also systematized administrative reforms, promoted economic growth and created a trustworthy relationship with the public.
However, when their rule ended with the reinstitution of the Mughal Empire, the Surs belonged to the sub-Groups of Ghilzais.

Military Achievements of Sher Shah Suri

Encounter on the fort of Chunar and Sher Shah’s diplomatic surrender.
Battle of Chausa with Humayun and Sher Shah’s victory.
Battle of Kannauj and Sher Shah’s decisive victory over Humayun. With the victory at Kannauj, Sher Shah became the ruler of Delhi. Agra, Sambhal and Gwalior etc., also came under his sway. This victory ended the rule of the Mughal dynasty for 15 years.
Battle at Surajgarh (1533 AD): He defeated the combined forces of the Lohani chiefs of Bihar and Mohamud Shah of Bengal at Surajgarh. With this victory, the whole of Bihar came under Sher Shah.
Invasion of Bengal: He plundered Bengal several times and by capturing Gaur, the capital of Bengal, forced Mohammad Shah to seek refugee with Humayun.
Conquest of Punjab (1540-42 AD): He immediately conquered Punjab from Kamran (Brother of Humayun) after his accession to the throne.
Suppression of Khokhars (1542 AD): He suppressed the turbulent Khokhars of the northern region of river Indus and Jhelum.
Conquest of Malwa (1542 AD): The ruler of Malwa had not helped Sher Shah in his struggle with Humayun. Therefore he attacked Malwa and annexed it to his empire.
Conquest of Raisin: He attacked Raisin – a Rajput principality and besieged it. Rajput ruler Purnamal entered into an agreement with Sher Shah that if he surrendered, his family would not be harmed. However Sher Shah did not honour this agreement.
Conquest of Multan and Sind (1543 AD): Sher Shah conquered and annexed these provinces into his empire.
Conquest of Marwar (1543-1545 AD): He brought Marwar under his control by forged letters and sowing dissensions in the army of Maldev, the ruler of Mewar.
Conquest of Kalinjar (1545 AD) and death of Sher Shah: He launched a fierce attack. He won but lost his life when he was grievously injured by the blast.

Central Administration

The Tarikh-i-Sher Shahi (History of Sher Shah), by Abbas Khan Sarwani, provides detailed citations about Sher Shah's administration.
As a skilled and proficient administrator, Sher Shah divided the empire into provinces but held the central authority of administration with him and he exercised the power for the benefit of the people.

(i) Each administrative branch was under Sher Shah's personal supervision. He held all the threads of policy and civil and military command in his hands.
(ii) His ministers had no authority to initiate any policy or propose a change in ways of transactions and administrative setups. They were however in charge of the routine work of administration on a daily basis.
(iii) Like the Sultanate period, Sher Shah also appointed four important ministers which are given:
(a) Diwan-i-Wazarat: Financial Department
(b) Diwan-i-Ariz: Military Department
(c) Diwan-i-Risalat: Department for royal orders, and
(d) Diwan-i-Insha: Department for religious matters, foreign affairs and judiciary
(iv) Sher Shah's re-established law and order across his empire with severe punishments for criminals, robbers and also the Zamindars disobeying his government.

Provincial Administration

The empire was divided among 47 separate units called Sarkars which were further subdivided into Parganas.
Officers included the Munsifs- for revenue collection, The Amirs- to hear the Civil Cases, The Qazis or Mir-i-adals- heard the criminal cases and the Muqqadams- to chase and arrest the culprits.
The administrative structure of each pargana included its individual law-keeper called Ami, treasurer and account keepers.
The Sarkar (higher administrative units), had officers like Shiqdar-I-Shiqdaran and a Munsif-I-Munsifan who supervised the work of the paragana officers.
Rotation of officers across the Empire was planned to keep a check on their performance. The rotation would occur every 2-3 years.
Important places of the Kingdom, under Sher Shah were connected by excellent roads for smoother military and trade movement. The longest of the roads, was called the Sadak-e-Azam or the "Badshahi Sadak" (which the british renamed as "Grand Trunk Road") and exists till date.

Map showing G.T. Road

Local Administration

Sher shah improved the law and order situation by making the local people responsible.

He appointed two persons with equal rank at Paragana and Sarkar levels, which divided the supervisory functions and hence ensured the stability of power.
At the local level there were village panchayats and Zamindars who were responsible for settling disputes and punishing the guilty. They reported to the qazi in each state.
The network of roads restored by Sher Shah includes roads from Sonargaon in Bangladesh to Indus in the west. He also orderd the connectivity of roads from Lahore and Multan, Agra, Jodhpur, Chittor and with the ports in Gujarat.
For the convenience of travellers, sarais or inns were built roughly at every eight kilometres along the roads. The government maintained them from the revenues of surrounding villages.
The Sarais were also the centres for post (dak chowki) that helped keep Sher Shah in being informed about the minutest activities in the Empire.

Revenue Administration

The head of the revenue and finance administration was called the Diwan-i-Wazarat or the Wazir. He also exercised supervisory power over other ministers. However, Sher Shah took a keen personal interest in the abstract of income and expenditure of his kingdom and also made enquiries regarding the finances and dues from the Parganas.

Land was classified into 3 categories for calculating the revenue based on the yield and measurement of land.
Schedules of rates were put up that fixed the revenue of land in terms of cash. ‘Pattas' were issued to the peasants and 'Qabuliyats' were received from them.
He had established a famine relief fund which was maintained by collecting two and half seers per bigha from the peasants.
Standardization of the coins of gold, silver, and copper, was done which also introduced standard weights and measures. Tolls were collected twice; once at the time of entry to the country and at the time of sales.

Military Administration

The empire had a large standing army of cavalry, infantry, elephants and artillery.

Soldiers were recruited daily by dispensing their tribal levies.
Set up a system of Dagh i.e. branding for his horses to ensure they are not replaced by inferior horses.
The descriptive roll of soldiers i.e. huliya was maintained for the same reason.
He strived to keep his army efficient.

Sur Architecture

Monuments built during the reign of Sher Shah include:

Rohtas Fort (UNESCO World Heritage Site, Pakistan)

Several structures in the Rohtasgarh Fort in Bihar
Masjid in Patna in honor and rememberance of his reign- Sher Shah Suri Masjid

A new city of Bhera was built in Pakistan in 1545 AD which incorporated the ''Grand Sher shah Suri Masjid".
A mosque at Purana Quila Delhi called the Qila-i-Kuhna mosque was built in 1541 AD.
Humayun citadel whose construction began in 1533 AD, and was extended, along with the building of Sher Mandal, (an octagonal structure within the Purana Qila complex), which Humayun used as a library.

Sher Shah Suri is also referred to as Sher Khan or the Lion King administrator of medieval India. His administration included a blend of old institutions and a new spirit to serve the interest of the people.

Death and Succession

Sher Shah is believed to have died from a gun powder explosion during the siege of Kalinjar Fort on 22 May 1545, while fighting against the Chandel Rajputs.
His death has also been claimed to have been caused by a fire in his store room. Sher Shah Suri was succeeded by his son, Jalal Khan who took the title of Islam Shah Suri
His mausoleum, the Sher Shah Suri tomb (122 ft high) stands in the middle of an artificial lake at Sasaram, a town that stands on the Grand Trunk Road.

Important Points

Sher Shah Sur (1486-1545)

Sher Shah Sur’s conquests include Bundelkhand, Malwa, Multan, Punjab, and Sind.
His empire occupied the whole of North India except Assam, Gujarat, Kashmir, and Nepal.
Though his rule lasted for only 5 years, he has organized an excellent administrative system.
The king was aided by four important ministers.
(i) Diwan –i- Wizarat or Wazir – in charge of Revenue and Finance
(ii) Diwan-i-Ariz – in charge of Army
(iii) Diwan-i-Rasalat – Foreign Minister
(iv) Diwan-i-Insha – Minister for Communications
Sher Shah’s empire was divided into forty-seven Sarkars.
Each sarkar was further divided into various Parganas and in charge of various officers.
(i) Shiqdar – Military Officer
(ii) Amin – Land Revenue
(iii) Fotedar – Treasurer
(iv) Karkuns – Accountants
(v) Iqtas – various administrative units
Under Sher Shah, the land revenue administration was well organized.
The land survey was sensibly done.
All cultivable lands were classified into three classes – good, middle and bad.
The state’s share was one-third of the average production and it was paid in cash or crop.
Sher Shah introduced new silver coins called “Dam” and they were in circulation till 1835.
Police were competently restructured and crime was less during his regime.
Shah borrowed many ideas like the branding of horses from Alauddin Khalji.
Sher Shah had also developed communications by laying four important highways.
(i) Sonargaon to Sind
(ii) Agra to Berhampur
(iii) Jodhpur to Chittor
(iv) Lahore to Multan

South India: Rulers and Army

South India And the Cholas

The Cholas were a mighty power to be reckoned with in ancient India is born out by the fact that they are mentioned as an independent kingdom in the edicts of Ashoka.
The traditional Chola country lay between rivers Pennar and Veller and comprised of modern Madras along with certain adjoining area now forming a part of the Karnataka state. Chola Empire
In the second century A.D. a Chola prince Elara conquered Ceylon and ruled there for long period.
Another important king among early Cholas was Karikala (190 A.D.). He defeated the Pandyas and the Cheras and was a benevolent king.
During the succeding centuries, the Chola power declined owing to the rise of the Pallavas and the agression of the Pandyas and Cheras.
The capture of Tanjore by Vijayalaya about the middle of 9th century A.D. was the first step in the revival of the Chola power.
He was perhaps a Pallava feudatory.
The independent kingdom of the Cholas was created by Aditya I, the son and successor of Vijayalaya.
He defeated the Pallava ruler. Aparajitavarman and annexed Tondamandalam. He invaded the western Gangas and perhaps occupied their capital Talkad.
He made Tanjore his capital, beautified it and built several temples of Shiva there.
At the time of his death, the Chola kingdom extended from Madras city in the north to the Kaveri in the south.

Chronology of Chola Kings
1. Vijayalaya (846-71 A.D.)
2. Aditya (871-907 A.D.)
3. Prantaka I (907-55 A.D.)
4. Rajaraja I (985-1014 A.D.)
5. Rajendra I (1014-44 A.D.)

Successors:
(i) Rajadhiraja (1044-54 A.D.)
(ii) Rejendra II (1054-64 A.D.)
(iii) Virarajendra (1064-69 A.D.)
(iv) Kulottunga I (1070-1118 A.D.)
(v) Vikramachola (1118-35 A.D.)
(vi) Kulottunga II (1135-50 A.D.)
(vii) Rajaraja II (1150-73 A.D.)

Brihadeeswarar temple at Thanjavur, TamilNadu The accession of Rajaraja I is a turning point in the history of the Cholas.

He pursued a policy of war and conquest, defeated the western Gangas, the eastern Chalukyas of Vengi, the Pandyas of Madura, the Gangas of Kalinga, and the Cheras of Kerala.
Rajaraja also laid the foundation of the greatness of the navy of the Cholas.
He conquered Kurga, the entire Malabar coast and part of Ceylon.
He also conquered the Maldive islands and attacked the islands of the South-East.
He be-friend king Tungavamana of Sri-Vijaya empire of South-east Asia.
The last exploit of Rajaraja was the occupation of Laccadive and Maldive Islands, referred to as 12,000 islands in the inscriptions.
Rajaraja laid the foundation of the local self-government in the administration of the Cholas.
He was a Saiva. He constructed the Saiva-temple of Rajarajeshvara which has been regarded as a remarkable specimen of Tamil architecture.
Rajaraja was succeeded by his son, Rajendra Chola. A mighty son of a father, Rajendra carried forward the Chola armies to the distant lands of Bengal, Orissa and south Kosala.
His navy attacked the Srivijaya empire which was a great naval power in South-east Asia at that time, and forced it to accept his suzerainty.
He was the first Indian ruler who established the supremacy of Indian navy in the Arabian sea.
The Chola empire was extensive and prosperous and the rulers enjoyed high powers and prestige.

The Rulers

They were hereditary monarchs. The Chola kings assumed high sounding titles.
The Chola rulers started the practice of electing their successor or Yuvaraja and associating him in administration during their life-time.
That is why there were no wars of succession among the Cholas.
The images of kings and their wives were maintained in various temples which indicated that they believed in the divine origin of kingship.Portrait of Rajaraja Chola and his guru karuvurarat Brihadeeshwarar temple
The power of the monarch was absolute. He gave orders but the issue were well examined by the ministers, heading various departments, before the instructions of the king were obtained.
There was thus a large set of officials grouped into grades.
These officials were orgranised into two grades, one upper ‘Perundanam’ and the lower ‘Sirudanam’. There were no rules of recruitment nor the salaries were fixed.

Army
The Cholas maintained powerful armies and navies. The infantry, the cavalry and the war elephants constituted the main parts of the army of the Cholas.

The Cholas spent huge amounts to maintain an efficient cavalry and imported the best horse from Arab countries to equip their army.
The kings kept their personal bodyguards called the Velaikkaras and who were sworn to defend the person of the king at the cost of their lives.
The soldiers and the officers who distinguished themselves in war were given title like Kshatriyasiromani.
The Cholas did not observe the Hindu morality of warfare, i.e. dharma-yudha.
The Chola army caused much injury to the civil population, including women.

Land Revenue and Administration

Land Revenue

The principal source of the state income was land revenue. if was fixed at one-third of the produce and was collected both in kind and cash.

Points To Be Remembered
Tiruvakya-Kelvi Verbal orders
Olainayamak Chief Secretary
Vidaiyadhikari Despatch-clerk
Peruvalis Trunk road
Mun-rukai-mahasenani The great army with three limbs
Velaikkaras The body guard of the monarch
Vari Revenue department
Dharmasanam The court of justice
Archaka Worshipping priest
Kudumbus Wards
Samvatsara Variyam Annual committee
Tottavariyam Garden committee
Eri-variyam Tank committee
Panchavara-variyam A standing committee
Pon-variyam Gold committee
Variyapperumakkal The members of the committee
Perumakkal Member of Mahasabha
Nyayattar The judicial committee
Alungnum The executive committee of an Ur
Siraf It was a meeting point of the sailors and merchants of the entire Indian Ocean
Udasina Ascetics of strangers of foreigners

All land was properly surveyed and classified. At times, there were periodical revisions.
The responsibility for collection of revenue was that of the village assemblies and the village as a whole was made responsible for payment of the entire revenue due from it to the king’s officer.

Administration

For administrative convenience, the Chola empire was divided into eight provinces ‘mandalams’.
Each province was sub-divided into various divisions and districts ‘Valanadus’ and ‘Nadus’.

Points To Be Remembered

The committee: (a) Annual supervision committee (b) Committee for charities (c) Tank committee (d) Gardens committee (e) Supervision of Justice committee (f) Gold supervision committee (g) Supervision of Wards committeed (h) Supervision of Fields committee (i) Supervision of Temple committee (j) Supervision of Ascetic committee.
A Chola inscription informs us that the residents of a district imposed a tax upon themselves for the conduct of worship in a particular temple (large corporation organisation).
There were corporate organisations of areas larger than a district. An inscription of Rajaraja Chola refers to the “Great Assembly of twelve districts”, and an inscription of Travancore, of the 12th century A.D., mentions a corporate body of six hundred for the whole state.
Pugalendi’s work Nala Venba, a Tamil version of the love story of Nala and Damayanti, is one of the most melodious in Tamil poetry.
Rajaraja, after conquering the North part of Sri Lanka, named it Mummadi Chola-Mandalam.
The Nataraja image, at the gate temple of Chidambaram, has been described as “the cultural epitome” of the Chola period.

The various villages were grouped into and placed under a sub-division called ‘Kurram’ or ‘Kottam’. The lowest unit of administration was village.
Local Self-government
The arrangements of local self-government has been regarded as the basic feature of administration of the Cholas.
The administration of the Cholas had the provision of local self-government beginning from the village up to the Mandal level at the top.
The village assemblies were known by the designations, the ‘Ur’ and ‘Sabha’ (or Mahasabha).
The ‘Ur’ was a general gathering of the entire adult population of a village.
The ‘Sabha’ or ‘Mahasabha’ was the assembly of Brahman villagers. For the formation of Mahasabha, first the village was divided into thirty wards.
The people of each ward used to nominate few people possessing the following qualifications:

   (i)   Ownership of about an acre and a half of land;
    (ii)    Residence in a house built on one’s own site;
    (iii)   Age between thirty five and seventy;
    (iv)    Knowledge of one Veda and Bhasyas; and
    (v)    He or any of his relations must not have committed any wrong and received punishment.

Those who had been on any of the committees for the past three years and those who had been on the committee but had been failed to submit the accounts were excluded from being nominees.

Points to be Remembered

The two Uttaramerur inscriptions of the Chola monarch Prantaka I may be said to constitute a great landmark in the history of the Chola village assemblies.
The first inscription laid down rules for the election of the various committees, and the second inscription amended these rules with a view to removing some practical difficulties.
Important sections of local administration were entrusted to committees of six or twelve members according to the importance of their functions.

The power of these assemblies were quite extensive. They managed all the affairs of a village like maintenance of roads, tanks and irrigation projects and looked to the welfare of the people.
They settled petty disputes and were also entrusted the responsibility of detecting crimes and punishing the criminals.
To look after in detail the current problems of administration, the assemblies appointed a number of committees for various departments.

Justice

For administration of justice, there were village courts and caste panchayats in rural areas.
The judicial committee of the Mahasabha called the Nyayattar settled cases of disputes, both civil and criminal.
In towns there were regular courts headed by the Judges, appointed by the king.
Apart from the normal methods of evidence, there were sometimes trials by ordeal.

Society, Art & Architecture: The Chola

Society, Art and Architecture

Society

The Society was based on varna-Ashramdharma but the different varnas or castes lived peacefully with each other.
Inter-caste marriages were permitted.

Points To Be Remembered

Rajaraja himself erected a temple for Vishnu and helped the Sailendra king of Java to construct and endow a Buddhist vihara.
To commemorate his victories in the Gangetic plains (Bengal, Orissa, and South Kosala), Rajendra Chola assumed the title of Gangaikonda and founded a new capital called Gangaikonda Cholapuram.
At the request of the king of Kadaram, in A.D. 1090, Kulottunga exempted the villages granted to the Buddhist viharas at the Nagapattana from the the payment of royal dues.
The Venetian traveller Marco Polo, who visited Kerala in the thirteenth century, says that all the soldiers in the body-guard burnt themselves in the funeral pyre of the monarch when he died.
The Cholas had a strong navy which dominated the Malabar and Coromandal coast and for sometime, the entire Bay of Bengal (Chola Lake).
An interesting record registers the decision of a village corporation that the residents of their village should not do anything against the interests of their village, nor against the local temples and other institutions, that if they did so, they must suffer as the gramadrohins (traitors to the village).
The corporations possessed absolute authority over the village lands and were generally left undisturbed in the internal management of the villages.

There were no purdah system and women freely participated in all social and religious functions.
Sati was not widely practised. The women inherited and owned property in their own right.
The Devadasi system was also in vogue and there were prostitutes also in cities.

Caste System

The caste system was the basis of the social organisation under the Cholas. Each caste was a hereditary occupational group.
There was considerable proliferation of castes on account of inter-caste marriages.
The Brahmanas being the learned part of society dominated the society. In appreciation of their service to society villages were given to them free of tax. Such villages were called brahmadeyas or chaturvedi magalams.
Among the non-Brahmanas, the Vellalas were a powerful caste. They enjoyed certain privileges such as exemption from the payment of local dues.
The Kamalas were another privileged group. But they were not permitted to perform Vedic rituals.
The shepherds formed another important section of the community. Merchant group was the another important limb of the society.
The Paraiyars lived in cheris and had their own separate cremation ground. They occupied a low position in society.
A new class called the ‘Rathakaras’ emerged in this period. They were born of a high class husband and a low class wife.
Another important social development during the period was the emergence of the Valangai and the Idangai factions. The Valangai was much

more privilged than the Idangai.

Position of Women

Women in general were well treated in Chola times. They enjoyed then right to property.
Sati was not practised generally though some royal women performed it.
Monogamy was then rule among ordinary people. Polygamy was prevalent among the royal and aristocratic families. Dowry system was unknown. Girls were normally married at the age of twelve.
Marriages were performed mostly according to Vedic rites.
Women engaged themselves in music, dancing and drama.
Some of them who were proficient in these dedicated themselves to the service of the temple. Their main duty was to participate in the daily activities of the temple and in the festivals. They were, therefore, called devaradiyar or talichderi pendir.

Scholars

Among noted scholars of this period were Trutakadevara who wrote Jiwanachintamani, Kambana wrote Ramavatrama. His Kamba Ramayana has been regarded as a master-piece of Tamil literature.
Among other noted Tamil works, Sulamani of Tolamokti, Kalingatuppani of Jayagodar, are important.
The Buddhist scholar, Buddhamitra, wrote the text named Rasoliyan.
During the reign of Prantaka I, Venkatamadhava wrote his commentary on Rigveda while Keshavaswamina wrote his scholarly work titled Nanartharanov (Sanskrit).

Art and Architecture

The Cholas continued and developed the art tradition of the Pallavas and Pandyas.
The replacement of brick of stone structures went on steadily under the Cholas.
The chief featurers of Chola temples are their massive vimanas or towers—and spacious courtyards.
In later Dravidian structures, however, the central towers are dwarfed by richly carved gopurams.
The best specimens of the Chola art of early period are the temple of Vijayalaya-Choleswara, the Nagesvara temple, the Koranganatha temple and the Muvarakovintha temple.
The Korangantha temple at Srinivasanllur which was probably, constructed during the reign of Parantak I has been regarded as the best example of the initial phase of the Chola development of the Dravida temple art.
Rajaraja I constructed the Rajarajasvara temple at Tanjore and the temple of Viruvalisvarama in the Timnaveli district.
Rajendra Chola also constructed a huge temple of Shiva at his capital of Gangaikon-dacholapuram.
Rajendra II constructed the temple Airavat-esvara at Dasasuram while Koluttunga III constructed the temple of Kampaharesvara at Tribhuvanam.

Provincial dynasties:

The Deccan &The South (upto 1656)

FEATURES
(i) The break up old the Bahamani kingdom gave rise to 3 powerful kingdoms: Ahmednagar, Bijapur and Golconda.
(ii) They combined to crush the Vijayanagara Empire at the battle of bannihatti neartallikota,
(iii) But soon they clashed with each other.
(iv) The conquest of Gujarat by Akbar was prelude to the Mughal conquest of the Deccan.
(v) The growing importance of Marathas employed as loose auxiliaries (bargis) in the bahamani kingdom.

MUGHAL ADVANCE TO DECCAN
Reasons for Mughal advance:
(i) It was logical for Mughals to advance towards Deccan after consolidation of the empire in the north India.
(ii) The conquest of the Deccan by the tughlaqs had improved cultural and commercia communications.
(iii) After the decline of the three Delhi Sultanate, many saints and artisans migrated to the court of the Bahmani rulers.
(vi) War between the various Deccani states were frequent occurrence.
(v) Growing Shiism, Mahdawi ideas clashed with the orthodox elements
(vi) Akbar was also apprehensive about the Portuguese growing power.

CONQUEST OF BERAR, AHMEDNAGAR AND KHANDESH
(i) Akbar claimed suzerainty over the entire country. Rajputs accepted and the deccani rulers was also follow the same
(ii) Diplomatic offensive was started by Akbar with limited success.
(iii) Factional fighting broke out providing opportunity to Akbar to enter the scene of Bijapur.
(iv) Berar was ceded to the Mughals for their help.
(v) Berar would provide Mughals a foothold to expand further in thee Deccan. Therefore, Bijapur, Golconda and Amnednagar combined their forces and invaded Berar. They were defeated
(vi) Consequently, Balaghat,Ahmedanagar, Khandesh were captured. But the Mughals were yet to consolidate their position in the Deccan.

RISE OF MALIK AMBER AND MUGHALS
(i) After the fall of Ahmednagar and capture of its ruler it would have been disintegrated il Malik Ambar would not have been there.
(ii) Malik Ambar:

FRUSTATION
(i) An Abyssian sold at slave market by his parents.
(ii) Purchased by a merchant who brought him to the Deccan.
(iii) He rose in the service of a noble at the court of Nizam Shahi.
(iv) After the fall of Ahmednagar, he found a Nizam Shahi prince and with tacit support of the ruler of Bijapur set him up as Nizam with himself as his Peshwa. He hatherec Maratha bargis around him who waged guerilla warfare frustating the Mughals to consolidate in the Deccan.

(i) The Mughal army under Abdur rahim khan -i-khanan defeated Ambar. But they decidec for friendship for stability (Abdur Rahim) and controlling internal rebels (Ambar).
(ii) After the death of Akbar, the position of the Mughals became weak.
(iii) Jahangir waged war with Malik Ambar but was defeated.
(iv) Ambar continued to prosper and the Mughals were unable to re assert themselves. This made Ambar arrogant and alienate most of his allies.
(v) Khan-i-khanan= Mughal viceroy of the Deccan took advantage & won over Maratha anc other nobles and inflicted crushing defeat on combined forces of Deccani states.
(vi) Despite reverses, Ambar continued the resistance.
(vii) Shah Jahan as prince Khurram led Mughal army to rout Ambar and shatter the United front of the Deccani states.
(viii) Ambar's achievements were short lived:
(a) Unwillingness to come to terms with the Mughals
(b) Clear recognition of importance of the Marathas in Deccan
(c) Improved administration of Nizm Shahi State by introducing Todar Mai's lands revenue system.
(d) Abolished Ijara system and adopted Zabti system.

EXTINCTION OF AHMEDNAGAR AND ACCEPTANCE OF MUGHAL SUZERAINTY
(i) Shah Jahan having the experience of Deccan affairs as prince Khurram knew the importance of Deccan.
(ii) Malik Ambar died in 1626 but his policy of refusing Mughal position in Berarstill continued.
(iii) Shahjahan diplomatically isolated Ahmednagar by bringing Bijapur and Maratha sardars on his side.
(iv) Ahmadnagar was extinguished as an independent state and the Mughals built garrison town at daulatabad.
(v) Marathas under Shahji defected and Bijapur also posed problems for the Mughals now.
(vi) An agreement was reaches upon between Bijapur and Mughals to reduce shahji's growing power and send him down south in return a part of territory of Ahmednagar was ceded tc Bijapur.
(vii) Treaties with Bijapur and Golconda enabled peace and extended suzerainty of the Mughal Emperor was now extended over lenght and breadth of the country.
(viii) The deccan states were given full freedom to extend south wards

CULTURAL CONTRIBUTION OF DECCAN STATES
(i) ALI ADIL SHAH ruler of Bijapur
(a) He used to hold discussions with hindu and Muslim saints and was called a Sufi.
(b) He has an excellent library to which he appointed Waman Pandit.
(c) Patronage of Sanskrit and Marathi continued by his successors.
(ii) HIS SUCCESSOR IBRAHIM ADIL SHAH II:
(a) Title of abla baba = friend of the poor.
(b) Deeply interested in music and write ab book kitab-i-nauras.
(c) New capital built=Nauraspur to settle large number of musicians
(d) Broad approach therefore called Jagat Guru.
(iii) QUTB SHAHI IBRAHIM QUTB SHAH recruited many hindus and Marathas into the court.
(iv) QUU QUTB SHAH
(a) Made Golconda intellectual resort of literary men.
(b) Growth of Dakhani Urdu.
(c) He himself wrote in Dakhani urdu, persian and telugu.
(d) Built Char minar with 4 arches which are 4 storeyed facing 4 directions.
(v) BIJAPUR:
(a) Urdu was patronised. Court poet Nusrati was famous
(b) Most famous Architecture Ibrahim Rauza=mausoleum for Ibrahim Adil shah
(c) Gol Gumbaz= largest single dome ever constructed.

The North:

Malwa, Jaunpur and Gujarat

Malwa

Malwa was successively ruled by two Muslim dynasties: the Ghuri since 1401 A.D., and the Khalji from 1436 A.D.
Its capital was the ancient Hindu city of Dhar until Hoshang shifted it to Mandu where he erected several mangificent edifices.
The fortified city is still noted for its splendid Jami Masjid, the Hindola Mahal, the Jahaz Mahal and the palace of the romantic Baz Bahadur and Rupmati.
Iltutmish had attacked Bhilsa and Ujjain, but the kingdom had continued to be under the Paramara rulers and their feudatories.
Ala-ud-din Khalji assigned its conquest to his general Ain-ul-Mulk who defeated its Rajput ruler, Mahlak Deva.
In 1390 A.D. Dilawar Khan Ghuri was made governor of Malwa. In 1406 A.D. Dilawar Khan died and Alp Khan ascended the throne with the title, Hoshang Shah.
A war broke out between Malwa and the Bahmani kingdom and Hoshang Shah suffered a disastrous defeat (1429 A.D.). He died in 1435 A.D.
The next ruler Muhammad Shah Ghuri proved a debauchee and a tyrant. His cousin, Mahmud Khalji, murdered him and seized the throne (1436 A.D.). Thus the royal line of Ghuris was replaced by that of the Khaljis.
In 1445 A.D. he recovered Ajmer from the Rana, captured Bundi. To commemorate his successes he erected a great Tower of victory at Mandu such as Rana Kumbha had already raised at Chittor. The ‘Abbasid Caliph’ of Egypt recognized his position and he received a mission from sultan Abu-Said of Khusrasan.
The next ruler, Mahmud’s ease-loving son Ghiyas-ud-din, was content to toll in his harem with 15,000 women, until he was poisoned by one of his sons, who ascended the throne as sultan Nasir-ud-din (1500 A.D.).
After Nasir’s death in 1510 A.D. his third son, ascended the throne with the title Mahmud Khalji II. Under him, Malwa rapidly declined. Rebellions broke out everywhere, and soon Malwa had three sultans challenging each other’s claim.
Ultimately, Mahmud II succeeded in ousting the other two, though at the cost of having to submit to the dictatorship of his Rajput supporters under the leadership of Medini Rai of Chanderi.
Mahmud fell before Bahadur Shah of Gujarat of 1531 A.D. He was taken prisoner and on his way of Gujarat he was murdered at Dohad.
In the year 1555 A.D. Shujaat Khan tried to assert his independance but he died in the same year.
His son Miyan Bayazid, better known as Baz Bahadur, proclaimed his independence. He fell in love with Rupamati who was noted for her gifts of music and poetry.
Their love became famous and finally united

Points To Be Remembered
Bengal was known in Delhi as ‘hell crammed with good things’. Though conquered, the province had never been assimilated to the Delhi empire.
Azam Shah of Bengal had close relations with the famous learned men of his times, including the famous Persian poet, Hafiz of Sheraz.
Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah of Bengal re-established friendly relations with the Chinese. The Chinese emperor received his envoy cordially and, in 1409, sent his own envoy with present to the sultan and his wife, and a request to send Buddhist monks to China.
During his period Chittagong port became a flourishing port for trade with China.
Azam Shah patronised the Bengali language. The celebrated poet Maladhar Basu, compiler of Sri-Krishna-Vijaya, was patronised by the sultan and was granted the title of Gunaraja.
Ala-ud-din Hussain is said to have shown great respect to the famous Vaishnavite saint, Chaitanya.
Since the time of Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji, the Muslim rulers of Bengal has tried to bring the Brahmaputra valley in modern Assam under their control.

Hem in marriage. Baz Bahadur was the last independent ruler of Malwa. Akbar annexed Malwa in 1562 A.D.
Jaunpur
The city of Jaunpur was founded by Firuz Tughladuring his second Bengal campaign in 1359 A.D.
Malik Sarwar, who is said to have been a slave of sultan Muhammad, rose steadily till he became Wazir in 1389 A.D. He gained from Mahmud Tughlathe title of Lord of the East (Malik-us-Sharq).
He was appointed the governor of the east provinces of the empire with the object of suppressing the rebellions in the Ganga doab.
During the period of confusion following the invasion of Timur, he threw off his allegiance to the Delhi Sultanate and founded a line of independent rulers known as the Sharqi dynasty of Jaunpur. He died in 1399 A.D.
Khwaja Jahan’s adopted son, a descendant of a slave of Firuz Tughlaq, assumed the title of Mubarak Shah Sharqi 1399 A.D.
His successor, Ibrahim, was the greatest king of the Sharqi dynasty and ruled for thirty-five years. (1402-1436 A.D.).
During the reign Delhi was all but completely eclipsed by Jaunpur which earned for itself the title of Shiraz-i-Hind.
After him three inconsequential successors followed, Mahmud, Muhammad and Husain, under the last of whom the struggle with Delhi ended with annexation of Jaunpur in 1476 A.D. by Bahlol Lodi.
Gujarat
Zafar Khan, who was governor of Gujarat since 1391 A.D., shook off his allegiance to the sultan of Delhi in 1401 A.D. and created his son Tatar Khan sultan of Gujarat under the title of Nasirud-din-Muhammad Shah.
Nasir-ud-din imprisoned his father but the latter got his son poisoned and ascended the throne as Sultan Muzaffar Shah and founded the Muzaffari dynasty.
Of the fourteen kings of this dynasty, the most important are three; Ahmad Shah I, Mahmud Begarha also known as Mahmud I, and Bahadur Shah. Ahmad Shah I (1411-1442 A.D.) was a grand son of Muzzaffarshah and is remembered for founding the city of Ahmedabad on the Sabarmati.
Sultan Muhmud Begarha who came to the throne at the age of thirteen and ruled for fifty two years (1459-1511 A.D.) was the most eminent ruler of this dynasty.
Remarkable tales about his personal pecularities, such as consuming a maund of food daily, and his body being so saturated with poison that flies settling on it would drop down dead etc.
He was a brave warrior and gained success in all his campaigns. He saved Nizam Shah Bahmani from aggression on the part of the sultan of Malwa, defeated the Surmas, Sodhas and Kalhoras in Kutch, and suppressed the pirates of Dwarka.
His reign was also memorable for the first conflicts between the cross and the crescent in India.
He joined the Ottoman Sultan of Turkey in trying to expel the Portuguese from the Indian waters. The Christians were defeated for the first time in Indian history.
During the reign of Muzaffar III, Akbar annexed Gujarat to his empire.

Points To Be Remembered
There were two warring kingdoms in north Bengal and Assam at that time. Kamata was in the west, and the Ahom kingdom was in the east. The Ahoms, a Mongoloid tribe from north Burma, had succeeded in establishing a powerful kingdom in the thirteenth century, and had become Hinduised in course of time.
Iliyas Shah invaded Kamta and, it seems, penetrated upto Gauhati. However, he could not hold the area, and the river Karatoya was accepted as the north-east boundary of Bengal.
An attack by Ala-ud-din Hussain Shah which was supported by the Ahoms led to the destruction of the city of Kamatpur and the annexation of the kingdom to Bengal.
The Vaishnavite reformer, Shankaradeva, belonged to the time of Svarga Narayana and played an important role in the spread of Vaishnavism in the area.
In 1360, while returning from his Bengal campaign, Firuz Tughladesecrated the famous Jagannatha temple.
The Jama Masjid in Ahmadabad and the Tin Darwaza are fine examples of the style of architecture during the period of Ahmad Shah of Gujarat.
Ahmad Shah imposed Jizaya on the Hindus in Gujarat which had never been imposed on them earlier.
According to Barbosa, a traveller, Mahmud Begarha, from his childhood, had been nourished on some poison so that if a fly settled on his hand, it swelled and immediately lay dead.

Sind, Bengal, Mewar and Khandesh and Bahmani Kingdom

Sind

In 1010 A.D. Mahmud Ghazni imposed his authority in Sind. With the decline of the power of the Ghzanavids, their hold over Sind weakened and a Rajput tribe known as the Surmas, assumed independent authority in the southern areas.

Iltutmish captured Sind and from then the sultans of Delhi considered it as a part of their Sultanate.

The Surmas were ousted by the Samma tribes, who established their rule over lower Sind. They had adopted Islam, claimed descent from the ancient Iranian emperor Jamshid and, therefore, used the title Jam.

Not much is known of the Jam kings who ruled over his region. Jam Nizam-ud-din, commonly known as Nanda, was the greatest Sindhian ruler. He was a scholar and a poet, and patronized Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Asad (1422-1501 A.D.), author of the Akhlaq-i-Jalali. After Nanda Jam Firuz ascended the throne. In 1591 A.D.

Akbar sent Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khana to invade the country and Sind was merged in the Mughal empire.

Bengal

Bengal after Tughril’s revolt in 1282 A.D., Balban’s son Bhugra Khan founded a dynasty in the province, which ruled in virtual independence of Delhi.

About 1297 A.D. eastern and western Bengal came to be separated into two kingdoms, with Sonargaon and Lakhnauti as their capital.

About 1342 A.D., Illyas an officer of Ali Shah, the ruler of Lakhnauti, made himself independent ruler of the entire Bengal, assuming the title of Shamsuddin Illyas Shah.

Sikandar Shah of this dynasty raised several stately buildings in their new capital of Pandua (1358-89 A.D.).

This dynasty was, during a short interlude, superseded by a Hindu prince, Raja Ganesh, and his son and grandson who became converts to Islam.

Then followed an Abyssinian dynasty which reigned till 1493 A.D., when it was overthrown by

Hussain Shah.

His long reign (1493-1519 A.D.) is noted for public works and for the promotion of Bengali literature. Chaitanya, the famous Hindu reformer, enjoyed this ruler’s patronage.

He was succeeded by his son Nusrat Shah, a contemporary of sultan Ibrahim Lodi. A Bengali version of the Mahabharata was prepared to the order of Nushrat Shah.

Mahmud Shah, a son of Nusrat Shah was overthrown in 1538 A.D. by Sher Khan Suri and sought shelter with Humayun.

Humayun captured Gurbut Sher Khan de

Points To Be Remembered

Malik Muhammad Jaysi, the author of the well-known Hindu work Padmavat, lived at Jaunpur.

Sikander Lodi selected the site for the city of Agra (1506).

Zainul Abidin is still called Bud Shah (the Great Sultan) by the Kashmiris.

The greatest engineering achievement of Zainul Abidin being Zaina Lanka- the artificial island in the Woolur lake on which he built his palace and mosque.

Ala-ud-din’s son, Humayun, who ruled from 1457-61 A.D., was the Nero of the Deccan.

It is necessary to recount the work of two great administrators of Bahmanis; they were both ministers, not kings;

(a) Saif-ud-din Ghuri, who served under the first five Bahmanis, and

(b) Mahmud Gawan who served under the last three real rulers of the dynasty.

The Hindus honoured Hussain Shah as an incarnation of Krishna, Nripati Tilak (crown of kings) and Jagat Bhushan (Adornment of the universe).

The literary work Ekalinga-mahatmya speak eloquently of the military successes of Rana Kumbha against neighbouring Rajput princes.

Rana Kumbha wrote commentaries on Jayadeva’s Gitagovinda and Chandisataam.

The Rathor dynasty of Bikaner was founded by Rao Biks. He was also founder of the capital city of Bikaner.

feating him at the battle of Chausa and recovered the independence of Bengal.

Khidr Khan, the son of Muhammad Khan, set himself up as an independent ruler and founded the Suri dynasty which continued till 1564 A.D. Then Bengal was seized by Sulaiman Karrani.

The third ruler of this dynasty, Da’ud Karrani was defeated by Akbar and Bengal was annexed to Delhi in 1575 A.D.

Kashmir

Inspite of the earlier advance of the crescent into Hindustan, Kashmir continued to be under its Hindu ruler until 1339 A.D.

In that year the first Muslim dynasty was established by Shah Mir who assumed the title of Shamas-ud-din. He died on 1342 A.D. and was succeeded by his eldest son, Jamshid.

Jamshid was dethroned by his brother Alisher, who assumed the title of ‘Ala-ud-din’ (1343 A.D.).

He died on 1354, A.D. and was succeeded by his son, Shirashamk, who styled himself as sultan Shihab-ud-din.

He banished his two sons and nominated his brother Hindal as his successor.

On his death in 1373 A.D., Hindal ascended the throne under the title of Qutb-ud-din and ruled till 1389 A.D. he was succeeded by his son Sikandar.

He was the most bigoted ruler of this dynasty and remembered as the But-Shikan (idol-breaker).

Timur demanded one lakh gold durursts and thirty thousand horses from him. But luckily for him Timur had to leave in a hurry for Samarqand and the crises passed off. Sikandar died in1413 A.D.

The greatest ruler of this family was Zain-ul-Abidin (1417-67 A.D.). He was Akbar’s forerunner in religious toleration and confined himself with strict fidelity to one wife, a rare phenomenon among Muslim rulers of that age.

He practised universal toleration, repealed the Jizaya, permitted the building of Hindu temple, and prohibited the slaughter of kine.

He encouraged literature, painting and music, and caused many translations to be made or works composed in Sanskrit, Arabic and other language.

Under his initiative the Mahabharata and Rajatarangini were translated from Sanskrit into

Persian.

Mewar

The ruler who raised Mewar to the status of a power to be reckoned with was Rana Kumbha (1433-68 A.D.).

The conflict with Gujarat and Malwa occupied Kumbha through out his reign.

Marwar was under Mewar occupation, but soon it became independent after a successful struggle waged under the leadership of Rao Jodha.

Kumbha was a patron of learned men, and was himself a learned man. The ruins of his palace and the victory tower (kirti stambha) which he built at Chittor show that he was an enthusiastic builder as well. Kumbha was murdered by his son Uda.

Rana Sanga, a grandson of Kumbha, ascended the throne of Mewar in 1508 A.D., and defeated Mahmud II in 1517 A.D.

The Lodi ruler, Ibrahim Lodi, invaded Mewar, but suffered a sharp reverse at the hands of Rana Sanga at Ghatoli.

The great Rana was defeated by Babur in 1527 A.D. at the battle of Khanua.

Khandesh

Khandesh was founded by one Malik Raja, who flourished in the time of Ala-ud-din Khalji and Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq.

In 1370 A.D. Firuz Tughlaassigned to Malik Raja the districts of Thalner and Kuronde on the borders of the Deccan. As Malik Raja claimed descent from Khalifa ‘Umar Faruq’ the dynasty came to be known as Faruqi.

His son Nasir succeeded to the throne. He captured the hill-fortress of Asirgarh, but Ahmad Shah, Sultan of Gujarat, defeated him when he attacked Nandurbar and compelled him to recognize his suzerainty.

He died in 1437 A.D. His successors were weak till the fifth ruler Adil Khan II came to the throne.

Adil Khan extended his rule by successfully fighting the rulers of Gondwana and Gorha-Mandla and threw off his allegiance to the Sultan of Gujarat but had to suffer humiliation when Mahmud Begarha invaded Khandesh (1498 A.D.).

On his death, Da’ud Khan, Ghazi Khan, Adil Khan III and Bahadur Khan followed. The dynasty ended when Akbar annexed Khandesh to the Mughal empire in 1601 A.D.

The Bahmani Kingdom

The first king of independent Deccan was Abdul fath Nisir-ud-din Ismail Shah.

Hasan Gangu, the ablest son of the new sultan, was given the little of Zafar Khan, and it was he who finally negated the strenuous attempts made by Muhammad Tughlato reconquer the Deccan.

His successor Muhammad Shah I (1358-1375 A.D.) carried out many administrative reforms.

He split the kingdom into four divisions called tarafs, each under the charge of a governor called Tarafdar.

His reign was marked by that series of wars, with Telangana and Vijayanagar.

The bone of contention between Vijayanagar and Bahmani was the rich Raichur doab.

Muhammad succeeded in snatcing Golkonda from the Hindu ruler of Warangal.

The next ruler, Mujahid Shah, was murdered by his uncle, within five years of his accession (1377 A.D.), and was followed in less than a year by Muhammad Shah II.

He acquired, by his fondness for poetry and philosophy, the name of the second Aristotle, and died in 1397 A.D.

Firuz Shah ascended the throne in 1397 A.D.

Firuz went to war against Vijayanagar on three occasions and lost the Raichur doab to the Hindus in 1417 A.D.

The last years of his reign were marred by a quarrel with Gesu Daraz, the saint of Gulbarga.

He abdicated the throne in favour of his brother Ahmed, who is famous in Deccan history as Ahmad Shah Wali.

Ahmed Shah Wali shifted the Bahmani capital from Gulbarga to Bidar sometimes about 1424 A.D.

He wages a successful war against Vijayanagar and pushed back an invasion from Malwa.

He engaged a Gujarat army near Bombay, an encounter in which his troops were worsted and this brought into open the latent conflict between the Deccanis and Pardesis in the Bahmani kingdom.

An able general and essentially a man of peace, Mahmud Gawan, himself a ‘foreigner’ played a noble role in establishing relations between the warring factions, by a policy of justice, fairness and conciliation.

Humayun (1438-1461 A.D.), who succeeded Ala-ud-din Ahmad Shah II, appointed Mahmud Gawan as his Prime Minister.

He was executed by Sulttan Shams-ud-din Muhammad (1463-1482 A.D.).

After Mahmud Gawan, Hassan Nizam-ul-Mulk Bahri, the leader of the Deccani party, was exalted to the title of Malik Naib and he controlled the affairs of the kingdom.

He was murdered by the Abysinian governor of Bidar. The defection of Ahmad Nizam-ul-Mulk began the process of disintegration.

In June 1490 A.D., Ahmad proclaimed himself as an independent king.

Other governors like Fathhullah Imad-ul-Mulk of Berar and Yusaf Adil Khan of Bijapur soon followed suit.

It was finally split up into what are known as the five Sultanates of the Deccan the ‘Adil Shahis of Bijapur’, ‘Qutb Shahis of Golconda’, the ‘Nizam Shahis of Ahmadnagar,’ the ‘Barid Shahis of Bidar’ and the ‘Imad Shahis of Berar.’

The Vijayanagar Empire (1336-1646 A.D.)

The Vijayanagara Empire was founded by Harihara and Bukka and the reign was from 1336 A.D to 1646 A.D.

By the end of the Sultanate Period, Multan and Bengal were the first territories to break away from the Delhi Sultanate and declare independence and many other territories in the Deccan region rose to power.

Extent of Vijayanagara Empire

Harihara and Bukka are the founders of the Vijayanagar City in 1336 A.D. on the southern banks of Tungabhadra
They made Hampi the capital city.
They served under Vira Ballala III, the Hoysala King

Vijayanagar Empire was ruled by four important dynasties and they are:

Sangama
Saluva
Tuluva
Aravidu

Harihara I

In 1336 A.D. Harihara I became the ruler of the Sangama Dynasty
He captured Mysore and Madurai.
In 1356 A.D. Bukka-I succeeded him

Krishnadeva Raya (1509-1529 A.D.)Krishnadeva Raya

“He is the most learned and perfect king that could possibly be. He is a great ruler and a man of great justice”—Domingo Paes.
He defeated the rebellious chief of Ummattur, the Gajapati king Prataprudra of Orissa, the Adil Shahi sultan Yusuf Adil and his son Ismail Adil and so on.
By his successive conquests, the whole of the Raichur doab passed into the hands of Vijayanagar.
He successfully invaded Gulbarga and Bidar and restored the puppet Bahamani sultan to the throne.
To commemorate this act of restoration of the Bahamani monarchy, he assumed the title of Kavanarajya Sthopanacharya.
He concluded a series of treatise with the Portuguese.
His relations with the Portuguese were governed by two factors: Common enmity with Bijapur and the supply of imported horses by the Portuguese to Vijayanagar.
His political ideas are contained in his Telegu work Amuktamalayada.
As a great patron of literature, he was known as Abhinava Bhoja.
For Telegu, it was an age of great poets and eight of them known as Ashta Diggajas adorned the court of Krishnadeva Raya.
Among these poets, Peddana was personally honored by the emperor for his proficiency in Sanskrit and Telegu.
He is honored as Andhra Pitamaha.
He founded the town Nagalpur near Vijayanagar.

Krishnadeva Raya‘s Conquests

He conquered Sivasamudram in 1510A.D and Raichur in 1512A.D
In 1523 A.D. he captured Orissa and Warangal
His empire extended from the river Krishna in the north to River Cauvery in the south; the Arabian Sea in the west to the Bay of Bengal in the east

His Contributions

An able administrator.
He built large tanks and canals for irrigation.
He developed naval power understanding the vital role of overseas trade.
He maintained friendly relations with the Portuguese and Arab traders.
He increased the revenue of his government.
He patronized art and architecture.
It was during his period the Vijayanagar Empire reached its zenith of glory.
Krishnadeva Raya was a great scholar.
Ashtadiggajas: A group of eight scholars adorned his court and they were:
1. Allasani Peddanna – the author of Manucharitram, he was also known as Andhra Kavitapitamaha
2. Nandi Thimmana – the author of Parijathapaharanam
3. Madayagari Mallana
4. Dhurjati
5. Ayyalaraju Ramabhadra Kavi
6. Pingali Surana
7. Ramaraja Bhushana
8. Tenali Ramakrishna

Battle of Talikota (1565 A.D.)

The successors of Krishnadeva Raya were weak
The combined forces of Ahmednagar, Bijapur, Golconda, and Bidar declared war on Vijayanagar during the rule of Aliya Rama Raya
Aliya Rama Raya was defeated. He and his people were killed mercilessly.
Vijayanagar was pillaged and ruined.

Vijayanagar-Bahmani Conflict

It started on a large scale in 1367 A.D. during the reign of Bukka-I.
Clash of interests in three areas :
(i) The Tungabhadra doab
(ii) Krishna-Godavari delta
(iii) and in the Marathwada country.
The Vijayanagar empire embarked on a policy of expansion towards the eastern seacoast under Harihara-II.
It was responsible for the alliance of the Bahamani kingdom with Warangal and which was a major factor in the inability of the Vijayanagar empire to overrun Tungabhadra doab.
The reign of Devaraya-I began with a renewed fight for the Tungabhadra doab.
He was able to inflict shattering defeat on Firuz Shah and annexed entire territory up to the mouth of the Krishna.
Devaraya-II was the greatest ruler of the Sangam dynasty.
In order to strengthen his army, he inducted more Muslims into the army.
There was confusion in the Vijayanagar empire after the death of Devaraya-II
He had to face an invasion led by the Bahmani sultan Ahmad-I in the Raichur Doab, but the actual outcome of this battle is a matter of controversy.
However, the fact that the Bahmani sultan shifted his capital from Gulbarga to Bidar, which was more secure, leads to an assumption that Devaraya gained some success.
After some time, the throne was usurped by the king’s minister, Saluva Narasimha.
Tuluva Krishnadeva Raya is considered the greatest of all the Vijayanagar rulers, for his military as well as other achievements.
Krishnadeva Raya’s death was followed by a struggle for succession among his relations.
After the eventful reigns of Achyutadeva and Venkata, Sadasiva Raya ascended the throne.
But the real power, during the reign of all of them, lay in the hands of Rama Raya, who was a son-in-law of Krishnadeva Raya.
Rama Raya was able to play off the various Muslim powers against one another.
He entered into a commercial treaty with the Portuguese whereby the supply of horses to the Bijapur ruler was stopped.
In a series of wars, he completely defeated the Bijapur ruler.
He then allied himself with the Bijapur ruler to inflict humiliating defeats on Golconda and Ahmadnagar.
However, ultimately his enemies combined to inflict a crushing defeat on Vijayanagar at Banihatti, near Talikota in 1565 A.D.
This battle is also known as the battle of Rakshashatangadi.

The Glories of the Vijayanagar Empire Administration

Well-organized administrative system
The king was head of all powers in the state.
Council of Ministers – to assist the King in the work of administration.
The Empire was divided into six Provinces.
Naik – a Governor who administered each Province.
The provinces were divided into districts and the districts were further divided into smaller units namely villages.
The village was administered by hereditary officers like accountants, watchmen, the weights men, and officers in charge of forced labor.
Mahanayakacharya: He is an officer and the contact point between the villages and the Central administration.

The Army

The army consisted of infantry, cavalry, and elephantry.
The commander-in-chief was in charge of the army.

Revenue Administration

Land revenue was the main source of income
The land was carefully surveyed and taxes were collected based on the fertility of the soil.
Major importance was given to agriculture and in building dams and canals.

Judicial Administration

The king was the supreme judge.
Severe punishments were given for the guilty.
Those who violated the law were levied.

Position of Women

Women occupied a high position and took an active part in the political, social, and literary life of the empire.
They were educated and trained in wrestling, in the use of various weapons of offense and defense, in music and fine arts.
Some women also received an education of high order.
Nuniz writes that the kings had women astrologers, clerks, accountants, guards and wrestlers.

Social life

Society was systemized.
Child marriage, polygamy, and sati were prevalent.
The kings allowed freedom of religion.

Economic conditions

Controlled by their irrigational policies.
Textiles, mining, metallurgy perfumery, and other several industries existed.
They had commercial relations with, the islands in the Indian Ocean, Abyssinia, Arabia, Burma, China, Persia, Portugal, South Africa, and The Malay Archipelago.

Contribution to Architecture and Literature

The Hazara Ramasami temple and Vittalaswamy temple was built during this period

Vittala Temple, Hampi

The bronze image of Krishnadeva Raya is a masterpiece.
Sanskrit, Tamil, Telugu, and Kannada literature were developed.
Sayana wrote commentaries on Vedas.
Krishnadevaraya wrote Amuktamalyada in Telugu and Usha Parinayam and Jambavathi Kalyanam in Sanskrit.

Sources of Vijaynagar Empire

Inscriptions

Bagapellsi Copper Plate Inscription of Harihara-I tells us about his achievements.
Bitragunta Grants of Sangama-II gives us the genealogy of the five Sangam brothers responsible for the foundation of the Vijayanagar empire.
Channarayapateena inscription of Harihara-II states that Bukka-I was successful in conquering several areas.
Srirangam Copper Plates of Devaraya-II list out the various achievements of the ruler.
Devulappali Copper plates of Immadi Narasimha give up the genealogy of the Saluva dynasty.

Numismatics

Gold Coins: Varahas

They issued a large number of gold coins, called “Varahas”.
On the obverse, they contain various Hindu deities and animals like bull, elephant, and the fabulous ‘Gandaberunda’.
On the reverse, they contain the king’s name either in Nagari or Kannada script.
Some quarter varahas of Deva Raya-II describes him as ‘Gajabenta-Kara’

Literary Works

“Amuktamalyada” of Krishna- deva Raya enables us to know about the polity and political ideas of the Vijayanagar rulers.
“Maduravijayam” of Gangadevi deals with Kampa’s conquest of Madurai during the reign of Bukka-I
“Saluvabhyudayam” of Rajanatha Dindiam was a historical eulogy of the Saluva dynasty.
“Gangadasa Pralapa Vilasam”, a drama, deals with the capture of Vijaynagar city by Bahamanis and Gajapathis of Orissa after the death of Devaraya-II.
“Manucharitam” of Allasari Peddana gives us a detailed account of the social conditions, particularly the caste system, of the Vijayanagar empire.
Foreign Traveller’s Accounts
Ibn Battuta, the Moroccan traveler, has left a good account of the Vijayanagar empire under

Points To Be Remembered

Deva Raya was a great builder and a patron of poets. Himself a scholar and author, he is reputed to have presided with conspicuous success over many literary disputations. In one such, the Telugu poet, Srinatha, was held to surpass the poet-laureate who belonged to the celebrated Dindima family and is said to have been bathed in a shower of golden tanks.
The Mughal emperor, Babur described Krishnadeva Raya as the most powerful ruler of India in his autobiography Baburnama.
Bukka claimed to be the protector of Hinduism and assumed the title of Vedmarga-Pratishthapaka or the establisher of the path of the Vedas.
Harihara I ruled between 1336-1356 A.D. His capital was Anegundi, but he shifted it to Vijayanagar after seven years.
Each governor of the province paid a fixed contribution in men and money to the central government. Thus, it has been estimated that while the income of the kingdom was 12,000,000 parados, the central government got only half the amount.
“Brothel, prostitution in the city was so enormous that the state realized a revenue of 12,000 panams out of them.” This amount, according to Abdur Razzaq, went `to pay the wages of the policemen’.
The empire was founded in 1336 A.D. by Harihara and Bukka of the Sangam dynasty who were at first in the service of the Kakatiya ruler of Warangal, Prataparudra-II
The sultan of Madurai defeated the Hoysala ruler and executed him. The dissolution of the Hoyala kingdom enables Harihara and Bukka to expand their tiny principality.
By 1346, the whole of the Hoysala kingdom had passed into the hands of the Vijayanagar rulers.
Before 1356 A.D. the Vijayanagar kingdom was a kind of cooperative commonwealth.
In 1367 A.D. first time a Bahmani sultan had in person entered the Vijayanagar territories to punish Bukka I and to capture Mudkal.
There was a series of Hindu principalities in the eastern sea coast, the most notable being the Reddis on the upper ridges of the delta and the rulers of Warangal in the lower ridges of the Krishna-Godavari delta.
The attempt of Rama Raya to become the de facto ruler by nominally installing the eighteen months old son of Krishnadeva Raya as the king was foiled by Saluva Vira Narasimha who brought Achutya Raya from Chandragiri.
Venkata-II shifted his headquarters to Chandragiri and during his reign Lord Venkateshwara of Tirupati replaced Virupaksha.
Venkata-II allowed the Portuguese to establish churches at Vellore.
Krishnadeva Raya totally withdrew the marriage tax.
Saluva Narasimha, the founder of the Saluva dynasty, was originally the chief of Chandragiri.
The two Sangama brothers, who founded the Vijayanagar empire were at first in the service of Kakatiya Kingdom.
At the initiative of Vidhyaranya Sangama brothers return to the fold of Hinduism from Islam.
Gangadevi was the author of “Madhuravijayam” which deals with Kampana’s conquest of Madurai during the reign of Bukka-Yusuf Adil Shahi was killed by Krishnadeva Raya in the Battle of Kovilkonda.
Muhammad Adilshah built the Gol Gumbaj at Bijapur.
Mahmud Gawan was the Vakil as well as the wazir of Muhammad Shah-III, the Bahmani Sultan.
Some of the quarter Varahas of Deva Raya-II describe him as the ‘Gajabentkara’.
According to Domingo Paes, ‘Devadasis’ held a highly respectable position in the Vijayanagar society. The military chiefs of the Vijayanagar empire were called Nayaks.
Black pepper was widely exported from the Vijayanagar empire.
Kalipendra was the founder of the Gajapati dynasty of Orissa. Under the the‘Nayakar system,’ Nayakas or Palegars were granted `Amaram’ in lieu of salaries in return for their services to the state.
Kaikkolas was an influential community of weavers living around temple precincts. The community of acrobats was called dombaras.
Venkata II shifted his headquarters to Chandragiri.During this period Calicut was the most important port on the Malabar coast.
The besabaga or the sale of human beings was not unknown. The tottiyans or kambalattas were originally shepherds and became petty Paraigars in the south.
Reddis were responsible for the material prosperity of the land.

Vijayanagar-Bahmani Conflict and Krishnadeva Raya

Vijayanagar-Bahmani
Conflict

It started on a large scale in 1367 A.D. during the reign of Bukka-I.
Clash of interests in three areas : (i) The Tungabhadra doab (ii) Krishna-Godavari delta (iii) and in the Marathwada country.
The Vijayanagar empire embarked a policy of expansion towards eastern sea coast under Harihara-II.
It was responsible for the alliance of the Bahamani kingdom with Warangal and which was a major factor in the inability of Vijayanagar empire to overrun Tungabhadra doab.
The reign of Devaraya-I began with a renewed fight for the Tungabhadra doab.
He was able to inflict shattering defeat on Firuz Shah and annexed entire territory upto the mouth of the Krishna.
Devaraya-II was the greatest ruler of the Sangam dynasty.
In order to strengthen his army, he inducted more Muslims in his army.
There was confusion in the Vijayanagar empire after the death of Devaraya-II
He had to face an invasion led by the Bahmani sultan Ahmad-I in the Raichur Doab, but the actual outcome of this battle is a matter of controversy.
However, the fact that the Bahmani sultan shifted his capital from Gaulbarga to Bidar, which was more secure, leads to an assumption that Devaraya gained some success.
After some time, the throne was usurped by the king’s minister, Saluva Narasimha.
Tuluva Krishnadeva Raya is considered as the greatest of all the Vijayanagar rulers, for his military as well as other achievements. (Informations

Points To Be Remembered

Kaivinaikuddi was the hired labour.
Like the Hoysalas, the ruler of Vijayanagar had a carefully organized military department called Kandachara udner the control of the dandanayaka.
A detailed land survey and assessment was conducted during the reign of Krishnadeva Raya.
The system of sharing of agricultural income between the landlord and tenant is varam.
Kuttagai was the lease system of cultivation.
Carpenters enjoyed a high status in Vijayanagar society.
Ship were built at Calicut.
Gold coins were largely in circulation.
The finest specimens of the painting of the Vijayanagar period have been found from Lepakshi.
Devaraya-II defeated the Sri Lankan troops and forced Sri Lanka to pay tribute to the Vijayanagar empire.
Vijayanagar state recognized prostitution.
Ornaments were the most popular items of luxury goods.
Stick play was known as Kolattam.
The kings of Vijayanagar were said to rule on behalf of Virupaksha, who was a Shaivite deity.

about Krishnadeva Raya will be given separately)

Krishnadeva Raya’s death was followed by struggle for succession among his realtions.
After the eventful reigns of Achyutadeva and Venkata, Sadasiva Raya ascended the throne.
But the real power, during the reign of all of them, lay in the hands of Rama Raya, who was a son-in-law of Krishnadeva Raya.
Rama Raya was able to play off the various Muslim powers against one another.
He entered into a commercial treaty with the Portuguese whereby the supply of horses to the Bijapur ruler was stopped.
In a series of wars he completely defeated the Bijapur ruler.
He then allied himself with the Bijapur ruler to inflict humiliating defeats on Golconda and Ahmadnagar.
However, ultimately his enemies combined to inflict a crushing defeat on Vijayanagar at Banihatti, near Talikota in 1565 A.D.
This battle is also known as the battle of Rakshashatangadi.

Points To Be Remembered

At the initiative of Vidhyaranya Sangama brothers return to the fold of Hinduism from Islam.
Gangadevi was the author of “Madhuravijayam” which deals with Kampana’s conquest of Madurai during the reign of Bukka-I
Yusuf Adil Shahi was killed by Krishnadeva Raya in the Battle of Kovilkonda.
Muhammad Adilshah built the Gol Gumbaj at Bijapur.
Mahmud Gawan was the Vakil as well as the wazir of Muhammad Shah-III, the Bahmani Sultan.
Some of the quarter Varahas of Deva Raya-II describe him as the ‘Gajabentkara’.
According to Domingo Paes, ‘Devadasis’ held a highly respectable position in the Vijayanagar society.
Military chiefs of Vijayanagar empire was called Nayaks.
Black pepper was widely exported from Vijayanagar empire.

Points to be remembered

Kalipendra was the founder of the Gajapati dynasty of Orissa.
Under the‘Nayakar system’ Nayakas or Palegars were granted `Amaram’ in lieu of salaries in return for their services to the state.
Kaikkolas were an influential community of weavers living around temple precincts.
The community of acrobats was called dombaras.
Venkata II-shifted his headquarters to Chandragiri.
During this period Calicut was the most important post on the Malabar coast.
The besabaga or the sale of human beings was not unknown.
The tottiyans or kambalattas were originally shepherds and became petty Paraigars in the south.
Reddis were responsible for the material prosperity of the land.

This battle is generally considered to mark the end of the great age of Vijayanagar.
After the battle, the kingdom lingered on for almost one hundred years under the Aravidu dynasty.

Krishnadeva Raya

“He is the most learned and perfect king that could possibly be....He is a great ruler and a man of great justice”—Domingo Paes.
He defeated the rebellious chief of Ummattur, the Gajapati king Prataprudra of Orissa, the Adil Shahi sultan Yusuf Adil and his son Ismail Adil and so on.
By his successive conquests, the whole of the Raichur doab passed into the hands of Vijayanagar.
He successfully invaded Gulbarga and Bidar and restored the puppet Bahamani sultan to the throne.
To commemorate this act of restoration of the Bahamani monarchy, he assumed the title of Kavanarajya Sthopanacharya.
He concluded a series of treatise with the Portuguese.
His relations with the Portuguese were governed by two factors:

(i) Common enmity with Bijapur and (ii) the supply of imported horses by the Portuguese to Vijayanagar.

His political ideas are contained in his Telegu work Amuktamalayada.
As a great patron of literature, he was known as Abhinava Bhoja.
For Telegu it was an age of great poets and eight of them known as Ashta Diggajas adorned the court of Krishnadeva Raya.
Among these poets Peddana was personally honoured by the emperor for his proficiency in Sanskrit and Telegu.
He is honoured as Andhra Pitamaha.
He founded a town Nagalpur near Vijayanagar.

Administration of Vijayanagar, Source of Income and Cultural and Artistic Achievements

Administration of Vijayanagar
King

The king of the Vijayanagar empire was the fountain-head of all power in the State. He was the supreme authority in civil, military and judicial matters.
This does not mean that he was a tyrant or an irresponsible despot. He was required to rule according to dharma.
He was required to keep in view the goodwill and welfare of the people. He was required to bring peace and plenty to the kingdom.
The ideal of kingship was given by Krishnadeva Raya in his Amuktamalyada. According to him, a crowned king should always rule with an eye towards dharma.

Ministers

The Vijayanagar empire was a vast feudal organisation and the king was at the head of the whole system.
He was helped in his work by a council which consisted of ministers, provincial governors, military commanders, men or priestly class and poets.
The members of the council were not elected but were nominated by the king.
The ministers were taken not only from the Brahmanas but also from the Kshatriyas and Vaishyas. The office of a minister was sometimes hereditary and sometimes not.
The important officers of the State were the Prime Minister, Chief Treasurer, Custodian of the Jewels and the Prefect of the Police.
The Prime Minister advised the king in all important matters. The Prefect was like the Kotwal and his duty was to maintain law and order.
Nuniz tells us that the Prefect of Police was required to give an account of the robberies in the capital and that lessened their number.
There was corruption everywhere. No merchant could see the king without offering bribes to many officers.

Points To Be Remembered

There were a number of other lower classes, who had no say in social matters. These included Dombaras who gave jugglers to the country, Maravas or fisherfolk, Jogies, Praiyans, Boyees, Erkelas and Kallars.
The Senabovas were accountants, and kept the revenue registers of their villages or nadus.
There are references in inscriptions to adhikaris attesting partition deeds and confirming land grants.
The antrimars seem to have been civilians who controlled the working of the village assemblies and other local organisation.
The Parupatyagar was a representative of the king or a governor in a locality.
The temples were granted sarvamanya land.
Ayagars were granted tax-free lands manyam which they were to enjoy in perpetuity for their services.
Adapanayak had an income of 3,00,000 pardaos of gold and had to maintain 8,000 foot and 800 horse soldiers for the king’s army and remit two-fifteenth of his income to the royal treasury.
The nadalavukal, the rajavthadankal and the gandaraya gandakal were the names of the measuring rods in the empire.
The nature of villages were—devedana, brahmadeya, dalavay, agrahara or karagrama.
Kadamai, magamai, kanikkai, kottanam, kanam, varam, bhogam, vari, pattam, irai and kattayam were among the many terms used to denote the kinds of taxes collected in Vijayanagar.

It appears that bribery was not considered to be something wrong.

Justice

As regards justice, the king was the supreme court of justice. In all important cases, his word was final. Petitions were presented to the king or the Prime Minister by all those who had a grievance and those were disposed of according to merits.
Civil cases were decided according to the principles of Hindu law and the usage of the country. Documents were attested by witnesses. People were fined for breaches of civil law.
The administration of criminal law was harsh. Torture was allowed to find out the truth. Theft, adultery and treason were punished with death or mutilation. Sometimes a culprit was thrown before elephants who tore him into pieces.

The Court

The rulers of Vijayanagar maintained a magnificient court and spent a lot of money for that purpose. The court was attended by nobles, learned priests, astrologers and musicians.
Provincial Government
The Vijayanagar empire was divided into many provinces for purposes of administration.
The terms used for the province are rajya, mandala and chavadi.

Points To Be Remembered

Vyasaraja was the raja-guru or the great royal teacher of Krishnadeva Raya.
Sthanikas were in charge of the management of temples.
The Sultan of the Deccani state who was treated like a son by Rama Raya, and was the real brain behind the formation of confederacy of Deccani states against Vijayanagar was Ali Adil Shah.
Walking on fire for divine favours was very much popular.
Barbers were exempted from profession tax.
The rulers of Vijayanagar patronized Telugu language.
The community of acrobats was called dombars.
Athavane or Athavana was the Department of revenue.

The provinces were also divided into sub-divisions like venthe, nadu, sima, village and sthala in the Tamil portion.
Venthe was a territorial division higher than a nadu. A nadu was a territorial division higher than a village. Kottam was a territorial division higher than a parru which again was higher than a nadu.
Sthala was a portion of a land comprising several fields. It is not possible to state the exact number of the provinces into which the empire was divided.
The view of H. Krishna Shastri is that the Vijayanagar empire was divided into six principal provinces. Each province was under a viceroy or Nayaka or Naik.
The latter was either a member of the royal house or an influential noble of the state or some descendant of some old ruling family.
The village was the unit of administration. Each village was self-sufficient. The village assembly was responsible for the administration of the village. Its hereditary officers were the village accountant, village watchman, the superintendent of forced labour etc.
These officers were paid either by grants of land or from a portion of the agricultural produce.

Source of Income

The main source of income of Vijayanagar empire was land revenue and its administration was under a department called Athavane.
Land was divided into three parts for purposes of assessment : wet land, dry land, orchards and woods.
Under the Hindu law, the share of the state was one-sixth of the produce but it appears that the same was increased in order to meet the heavy burdens of the State.
According to Nuniz, “All land belongs to the king and from his land the captain holds it. They make it over to husband-men who pay nine-tenths of the produce to their lords, who, in their turn, pay one-half to the king.”
In addition to land revenue, the peasants were required to pay other taxes such as grazing tax, marriage tax etc.
The state got its income from customs duties, tolls on roads, revenue from gardening and plantations and taxes from manufacturers, craftsmen, potters, washermen, mendicants, barbers, shoemakers and prostitutes.
Abdur Razzatells us that the income from the prostitutes was 12,000 Fanams which was devoted to the maintenance of policemen attached to the office of the Prefect of the City.
The people were required to pay a number of duties on articles of ordinary consumption such as grains, fruits, vegetables, fats etc.
Only one road led to the city and it was controlled by a gate. The right of collecting the duties was given to the highest bidder.
According to Nuniz, “The gate is rented out for 12,000 Pardaos each year and no one can enter it without paying just what the rentees ask, country folks as well as strangers....everyday enter by these gates 2,000 oxen, and every one of these pays three Vintees, except certain polled oxen without horns, which never pay anything in any part of the realm.”

The Army

The military organisation of Vijayanagar empire was under a department called Kandachara and its head was Dandanayaka or Dannayaka or Commander-in-Chief. The military organisation was of a feudal nature.
The king had an army of his own but in addition to that, the provincial governors were required to send their contingents in times of emergency.
Nuniz tells us that the rulers of Vijayanagar could recruit as many soldiers as they pleased with the money at their disposal.
The army consisted of the infantry, cavalry, artillery and camels. The Vijayanagar army was inferior in strength, patience and endurance to the Muslim armies.
A lot of reliance was put on elephants who were practically useless in the face of archers and artilerymen.

Cultural and Artistic Achievements

The kings patronized Sanskrit, Telugu, Tamil and Kannada and many literary works of outstanding merit saw the light of the day because of their royal patronage.
Sayana, the renowned commentator on the Vedas, and his brother, Madhava Vidyaraya flourished in the early years of Vijayanagar.
Apart from popular imagination, there were poets and scholars of extraodinary merit in the Court of Krishnadeva Raya.
Among them, the prominent were Allasani Peddana, the author of ‘Manucarita’ Nandi Timana, the author of ‘Parijatapaharana’, Bhattumurti, the author of ‘Narasabhupaliyam’.
The later kings continued the literary traditions of their illustrious predecessors and many works on music, dancing, drama, grammar, philosophy etc. were composed. These were remarkable activity in the domain of art and architecture.
Krishnadeva Raya built the famous Hazra temple, described by Longhurst as ‘one of the most perfect specimen of Hindu temple architecture in existence.’
The Vitthalsvami temple is another excellent work of architecture of Vijayanagar style.

Social and Economic Condition

Social Condition

The rulers of Vijayanagar were the followers of Vishnu but they followed a policy of religious toleration towards all.
A study of the relevant material shows that women occupied a high position in society. They took part in the political, social and literary life of the country.
According to Nuniz. “He (king) has also women who wrestle and others who are astrologers and soothsayers ; and he has women who write all the accounts of expenses that are incurred inside the gates, and others whose duty to write all the affairs of the kingdom and compare their books with those of writers outside; he was women also for music who played instruments and sing. Even the wives of the king are well-versed in music...It is said that he has judges, as well as bailiffs and watchmen, who every night guard the palace and these are women.”
Men were allowed to marry more than one wife. This was particularly so among the rich.
Child marriage was common. Big dowries were demanded at the time of marriage.
The practice of sati was common and was sanctioned by the Brahmans.
Abdur Razzarefers to the existence of brothels in the city where women of loose character lived.

Brahmans

The Brahmans were held in high esteem by the rulers of Vijayanagar and no wonder they had alot of influence in the social, religious and political fields.
Nuniz describes the Brahmans as “honest men, given to merchandise, very acute and of much talent, very good at accounts, lean men and well formed, but little fit for hard work.”

Food

There were no restrictions in matters of food. People took fruits, vegetables, oil and meat of all kinds except that of oxen or cows.
According to Nuniz, “These kings of Bisnaga eat all sorts of things, but not the flesh of oxen or cows which they never kill in all the county of the heathen, because they worship them. They eat mutton, pork, venison, partridges, hares, doves, quails, and all kinds of birds; even sparrows, and rats, and cats, and lizards, all of which are sold in the market of the city of Bisnaga”.
Bloddy sacrifices were performed in the Vijayanagar empire.
According to Paes, on a certain festival, the king used to witness the slaughter of 24 buffaloes and 150 sheep.
When the Mahanavami festival was over, 250 buffaloes and 4,500 sheep were killed on the last day.

Economic Condition

The empire of Vijayanagar was very rich. The foreign travellers who visited the Vijayanagar empire have paid tributes to its wealth and splendour.
According to Nicolo Conti, “The circumference of the city (Vijayanagar) is 60 miles ; its walls are carried up to the mountains and enclosed the valley at their foot, so that its extent is thereby increased. In the city there are estimated to be 99,000 men fit to bear arms. The king is more powerful than all the other kings of India.”
The prosperity of the Vijayanagar empire was due to the growth of agriculture, industries, trade and commerce. The state followed a wise irrigation policy. Industries were also encouraged by the state.
Commerce was inland, coastal and overseas. Calicut was the most important port on the Malabar coast. If Abdur Razzais to be believed, there were as many as 300 sea-ports in the Vijayanagar empire.
There were commercial relations with the islands in the Indian Ocean, the Malaya Archipelago, Burma, China, Arabia, Persia, South Africa, Abyssinia and Portugal. The exports from the Vijayanagar empire were cloth, rice, iron, salt petre, sugar and spices.
The imports were horses, elephants, pearls, copper, coral, mercury, China silk and velvet. Edoardo Barbosa tells us that South India got its ships built in the Maldive Islands. The art of ship-buildings was well-known.
The coins of the empire were those of gold, copper and silver. There were emblems of different gods and animals on them.
They have three kinds of money made of gold mixed with alloy.

1. Varahas - weight about one mithkal, equivalent to two dinars.
2. Kopeki - which is called pertab, is the half of the first.
3. Fanam - is equivalent in value to one-tenth part of the last mentioned coin.

Of the different coins the fanam is the most useful.
They cast in pure silver a coin which is the sixth of the fanam, which they call tar.
A copper coin with the third of a tar is called dijital.
If any man receives from the Diwan an allowance in gold, he has to be paid by the darabkhana.

Religious Movements in the 15th and 16th century:

15^th & 16^th Centuries Religious Movements

Religion has played an important role in the lives of the Indian people from the earliest time. But religion in India has never been static; various movements have developed with new ideas and in response to evolving socio-economics situations.

The social, political, cultural, and religious Movements that emerged in various parts of India during medieval times tried to ties the people together with a harmonious cord.
The religious movement of Medieval India had a tremendous impact on the literature and language of the country.
The Sufi and Bhakti Movements brought a new form of religious expression amongst Muslims and Hindus. The Sufis were mystics who called for liberalism in Islam. They emphasized an egalitarian society based on universal love.
The Bhakti saints transformed Hinduism by introducing devotion or bhakti as the means to attain God. For them, caste had no meaning and all human beings were equal. The Sufi and Bhakti saints played an important role in bringing the Muslims and Hindus together.

The Sufi Movement

Mystics, who are called Sufis, had risen in Islam at a very early stage these saints wanted to have nothing to do with the state- a tradition which continued later on.

Some of the early Sufis, such as the woman mystic Rabia and Mansur bin Hallj laid great emphasis on love as the bond between God and the individual soul.
But their pantheistic approach led them into conflict with the orthodox elements who had Mansur executed for heresy Despite this setback, mystic ideas continued to spread among the Muslim masses.
Al-Ghazzaili, who is venerated both by the orthodox elements and the Sufis, tried to reconcile mysticism with Islamic orthodoxy. This he was able to do in a large measure. He gave a further blow to the rationalist philosophy by arguing that positive knowledge of God and his qualities cannot be gained by reason, but only by revelation.
Thus, the revealed book, Quaran, was vital for a mystic. Around this time, the Sufis were organized in 12 orders or silsilahs. The silsilahs were generally led by a prominent mystic who lived in a khanqah or hospice along with his disciples.
The like between the teacher or pir and his disciples or mufids was a vital part of the Sufi system. Every pir nominated a successor or wali to carry on his work.
The monastic organization of the Sufis, and some of their practices such as penanee, fasting, and holding the breath are sometimes traced to the Buddhist and Hindu yogic influence.
Buddhism was widely prevalent in Central Asia before the advent of Islam, and the legend of the Buddha as a saintly man had passed into the Islamic legend. Yogis continued to visit West Asia even after the advent of Islam and the yogic book, Amrit-kund, had been translated into Persian from Sanskrit.
The Sufi orders are broadly divided into two: Ba-shara, that is, those which followed the Islamic Law (shara) and be-shara, that is, those which were not bound by it Both types of orders prevailed in India, the latter being followed more by wandering saints.
Although these saints did not establish order, some of them became figures of popular veneration, often for the Muslims and Hindus alike.

The Chishti and Suharwardi Silsilahs

Of the bashara movements, only two acquired significant influence and following in north India during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. These were the Chisti and Suharwardi silsilahs.

The Chisti order was established in India by Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti who came to India around 1192, shortly after the defeat and death of Prithvi Raj Chauhan. After staying for some time in Lahore and Delhi he finally shifted to Ajmer which was an important political center and already had a sizable Muslim population.

Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti

Among the disciples of Shaikh Muinuddin were Bakhtiyar Kaki and his disciple Faridud-Din Ganj-j-Shakar. Farid-ud-Din confined his activities to Hansi and Ajodhan (in modern Haryana and the Punjab, respectively).
He was deeply respected in Delhi, so much so that streams of people would throng around him whenever he visited Delhi. His outlook was so broad and humane that some of his verses are later found quoted in the Adi-Granth of the Sikhs.
The most famous of the Chisti saints, however, was Nizamuddin Auliya and Nasiruddin Charigh-i-Delhi. These early Sufis mingled freely with people of the lower classes, including the Hindus.
They led an austere, simple life, and conversed with people in their dialect, Hindawi or Hindi. Nizamuddin Auliya adopted yogic breathing exercises, so much so that the yogis called him a sidh or perfect. After the death of Nasiruddin Chiragh-i-Delhi in the middle of the fourteenth century, the Chishtis did not have a commanding figure in Delhi.
The Suharwardi order entered India at about the same time, as the Chistis, but its activities were confined largely to the Punjab and Multan.
The most well-known saints of the order were Shaikh Shihabuddin Suharwardi and Hamid-ud-Din Nagore. Unlike the Chistis, the Suharwardi saints did not believe in leading a life of poverty. They accepted the service of the state, and some of them held important posts in the ecclesiastical department.
The Chistis, on the other hand, preferred to keep aloof from state politics and shunned the company of rulers and nobles.

The Bhakti Movement

The Bhakti movement refers to the trend that was brought forward by a number of Hindu saints in medieval Hinduism that sought to bring religious reforms by adopting the method of devotion to achieve salvation.

The real development of Bhakti took place in south Indian between the seventh and the twelfth century.
As has been noticed earlier, the Shaiva nayanars and the Vaishnavite alvarsh disregarded the austerities preached by the Jains and the Buddhists and preached personal devotion to God as a means of salvation.
They disregarded the rigidities of the caste system and carried their message of love and personal devotion to God to various parts of south India by using the local languages.
Although there were many points of contact between south and north India, the transmission of the ideas of the Bhakti saints from south to north India was a slow and long-drawn-out process.
The ideas of Bhakti were carried to the north by scholars as well as by saints. Among these, mention may be made of the Maharashtrian saint, Namadeva, who flourished in the first part of the fourteenth century, and Ramananda who is placed in the second half of the fourteenth and the first quarter of the fifteenth century.
Namadeva was a tailor who had taken to banditry before he became a saint. His poetry which was written in Marathi breathes a spirit of intense love and devotion to God. Namadeva is said to have traveled far and wide and engaged in discussions with the Sufi saints in Delhi.
Ramanda, who was a follower of Ramanuja, was born at Prayag (Allahabad) and lived there and at Banaras. He substituted the worship of Rama in place of Vishnu. He enrolled disciples from all castes, including the low castes.
Thus his disciples included Ravidas, who was a cobbler by caste; Kabir, who was a weaver; Sena, who was a barber; and Sadhana, who was a butcher. Namadeva was equally broadminded in enrolling his disciples. The seeds scattered by these saints fell on fertile soil.
The Brahmanas had lost both in prestige and power following the defeat of the Rajput rulers and the establishment of the Turkish Sultanat. As a result, movements, such as the Nath Panthi movement challenging the caste system and the superiority of the Brahmanas, had gained great popularity.
These coincided with the Islamic ideas of equality and brotherhood which had been preached by the Sufi saints. People were no longer satisfied with the old religion; they wanted a religion that could satisfy both their reason and emotions. It was due to these factors that the Bhakti movement became a popular movement in north India during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.
Among those who were most critical of the existing social order and made a strong plea for Hindu-Muslim unity, the names of Kabir and Nanak stand out. There is a good deal of uncertainty about the dates and early life of Kabir. Legend has it that he was the son of a brahmana widow who abandoned him after his birth and that he was brought up in the house of a Muslim weaver.
He learned the profession of his adopted father, but while living at Kashi, he came in contact with both the Hindu and Muslim saints. Kabir, who is generally placed in the fifteenth century, emphasized the unity of God whom he calls by several names, such as Rama, Hari, Govinda, Allah, Sain, Sahib, etc.
He strongly denounced idol-worship, pilgrimages, bathing in holy rivers or taking part informal worship, such as namaz. Nor did he consider it necessary to abandon the life of a normal householder for the sake of a saintly life Kabirstrongly denounced the caste system, especially the practice of untouchability, and emphasized the fundamental unity of man.
He was opposed to all kinds of discrimination between human beings, whether on the basis of castes or religion, race, family, or wealth.

Guru Nanak Dev Ji

Guru Nanak, from whose teachings the Sikh religion was derived, was born in a Khatri household in the village of Talwandi (now called Nankana) on the bank of the river Ravi in 1469. Sometime later, he had a mystic vision and forsook the world. He composed hymns and sang them to the accompaniment of the rabab, a stringed instrument played by his faithful attendant, Mardana.
It is said that Nanak undertook wide tours all over India and even beyond it, to Sri Lanka in the south and Mecca and Medina in the west. He attracted a large number of people towards him and his name and fame spread far and wide before his death in 1538.
Like Kabir, Nanak laid emphasis on the one God, by repeating whose name and dwelling on it with love and devotion one could get salvation without distinction of caste, creed, or sect.
However, Nanak laid great emphasis on the purity of character and conduct as the first condition of approaching God, and the need for a guru for guidance. Like Kabir, he strongly denounced idol worship, pilgrimages, and other formal observances of the various faiths. He advocated a middle path in which spiritual life could be combined with the duties of the householder.
Nanak had no intention of founding a new religion. His catholic approach aimed at bridging distinctions between the Hindus and the Muslims, in order to create an atmosphere of peace, goodwill, and mutual give and take. This was also the aim of Kabir.

The Vaishnavite Movement

Apart from the non-sectarian movement led by Kabir and Nanak, the Bhakti L movement in north India developed around the worship of Rama and Krishna, two of the incarnations of the god Vishnu.

The childhood escapades of the boy Krishna and his dalliance with the milk-maids of Gokul, especially with Radha, became the themes of a remarkable series of saint-poets who lived and preached during the 15th and early 16th centuries.
They used the love between Radha and Krishna in an allegoric manner to depict the relationship of love, in its aspects of the individual soul with the supreme soul.
Like the early Sufis, Chaitanya popularised musical gathering or kirtan as a special form of mystic experience in which the outside world disappeared by dwelling on God's name.

Vaishnavism

The writings of Narrsinha Mehta in Gujarat, of Meera in Rajasthan, of Surdas in western Uttar Pradesh, and of Chaitanya in Bengal and Orissa reached extraordinary heights of lyrical fervor and of love which transcended all boundaries, including those of caste and creed, this is seen most clearly in the life of Chaitanya.
Born and schooled in Nadia which was the center of Vedantic rationalism, Chaitanya's tenor of life was changed when he visited Gaya at the age of 22 and was initiated into the Krishna cult by a recluse.
He became a god-intoxicated devotee who incessantly uttered the name of Krishna Chaitanya is said to have traveled all over India, including Vrindavan, when he revived the Krishna cult.
But the one who probably influenced the saint poets most was Vallabha, a Tailang brahmana, who lived in the last part of the fifteenth and the early part of the sixteenth century.

Bhakti Sufi Traditions:

Introduction

From 8th-18th century Bhakti Movement, Islam and Sufi movement played an important role in the history of medieval India.
The Alvars and the Nayanars were considered as the founder of Bhakti movement in southern India.
The Alvars were the devotees of Lord Vishnu, while the Nayanars followed Shaivism.
Both Alvars and Nayanar strongly criticised the social and religious malpractices prevalent in the society.
Two women saints-Andal of Alvars and Karaikkal of Ammaiyar of Nayanars played a valuable role in giving a new direction to the society. 12 Alvars
The Cholas, Pallavas, and Chalukya patronised both Alvar and Nayanar cult.
Basavanna founded Virashaivas or Lingayats in Karnataka and played a valuable role in the development of his cult.
Islam was founded by prophet Muhammad in 7th century in Azabia.

The pillars of Islam are:

Reutors Raima
Nama
Ranja
Zakat
Hajj

The holy book of Islam is Quran Shariff. It has been written in Arabic and has 114 chapters.
According to Muslim tradition Quran is the compilation of those message which god (Allah) had sent to prophet Muhammad between 610-632 at Mecca and Madina through his envoy Archangel Jibris.
During Medieval period in India Sufism emerged as a powerful movement.Sufis were so called because of the purity (safa) of their hearts. They are in the first queue before god. Some others are of the views that Sufi’s were called so because of their habit of wearing wool (suf).
Unity in God, complete self-surrender, charity, Ibadat, love for mankinds, etc. are the main teaching of Sufism.

Sufi silsilas begin to emerge in Islamic world.

The important silsilas of Islam are;

The Chishti Silsila
The Suhrawardi Silsila
The Qadiri Silsila
The Naqshbandi Silsila

Data Gunj Bakhsh, Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti, Shaikh Qutbuddin. Bakhtiyar Kaki, Fariduddin Gunj-i Shakar, and Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya are some of the prominent Sufi Shaikhs in India.

Ziyarat meant pilgrimage to the tombs of sufi saints. Its main objective was to seek the spiritual grace from the Sufi.
Music and dance are an important part of Ziyarat.
The Sufis believed that music and dance evoke divine ecstasy in human heart.
The religious gathering of Sufism is known as Sama.
The qual is an Arabic word which meant ‘saying’. It was sung at opening or closing of the qawwals.
The devotional worship of god with the ultimate objective of attaining moksha is called Bhakti. The word Bhakti was derived from the root ‘Bhaj’ meaning to adore.
The Bhaktis who were against the worship of avatars and idol worship are known as saints. Kabir, Guru Nanak Dev ji and successor of Guru Nanak Dev ji are the prominent Bhakti Saints.

Shri Guru Nanak Dev Ji

The impact of the Bhakti movement on the Indian Society was significant and far-reaching.
A variety of religious structures like stupas, monastries, temples are found in the sub-continent by the mid-first millennium CE. Textual resources like the Puranas, music in different regional languages, hagiographies of saints were also found. These sources provide us with insight into a dynamic and diverse scenario.

Various Religious Beliefs and Practices:

A wide range of Gods and Goddesses were found in sculpture as well as in texts. Puranic texts were composed and complied in simple Sanskrit language which could be accessible to women and Shudras, who were generally deprived of vedic learning. Many beliefs and practices were shaped through continuous mingling of Puranic traditions with local traditions. Jagannatha cult of Odisha was the local deity made of wood by local tribal specialists and recognised as a form of Vishnu.
The local deities were often incorporated within the Puranic framework, by providing them with an identity as wife of the principal deities. For e.g. they were equated with Lakshmi, wife of Vishnu, or Parvati, wife of Shiva. Tantric practices were widespread in several parts of sub-continent. It influenced Shaivism as well as Buddhism.
The principal deities of the Vedic pantheon Agni, Indra and Soma were rarely visible in textual or visual representations. All other religious beliefs, e.g. Buddhism, Jainism, Tantric Practices ignored the authority of the vedas. The singing and chanting of devotional composition became a mode of worship particularly true for the Vaishnava and Shaiva sects.

Early Traditions of Bhakti:

Historians classified bhakti traditions into two broad categories i.e. Nirguna (without attributes) and Saguna (with attributes).
In the sixth century, Bhakti movements were led by Alvars (devotees of Vishnu) and Nayanars (devotees of Shiva). They travelled place to place singing Tamil devotional songs. During their travels, the Alvars and Nayanars identified certain shrines and later large temples were built at these places.
Historians suggested that the Alvars and Nayanars initiated a movement of protest against the caste system. Nalayira Divyaprabandham composed by the Alvars was described as the Tamil Veda.
Women devotees like Andal, Karaikkal Ammariyar composed devotional music which posed a challenge to patriarchal norms. Under the patronage of the Chola rulers, large and magnificent temples were constructed at Chidambaram, Thanjavur and Gangai Kondacholapuram.
Tamil Shaiva hymns were sung in the temples under royal patronage.

The Virashaiva Tradition in Karnataka:

A new movement emerged in Karnataka led by a Brahmana named Basavanna in the 12th century’.
His followers were known as Virashaivas (heroes of Shiva) or Lingayats (Wearers of Lingas). Lingayats continue to be an important community in the region to date.

Basvanna

The Lingayats challenged the idea of caste, pollution, theory of rebirth etc and encouraged post-puberty marriage and the remarriage of widows.
Our understanding of the Virashaiva tradlition is derived from Vachanas (literally sayings) composed in Kannada by women and men who joined the movement.

Emergence of Islamic Traditions:

In the 13th century, Turk and Afghans invaded India and established the Delhi Sultanate.
Theoretically, Muslim rulers were to be guided by the Ulama and followed the rules of Shari’a.
Non-Muslims had to pay a tax called Jizya and gained the right to be protected by Muslim rulers.
Several Mughal rulers including Akbar and Aurangzeb gave land endowments and granted tax exemptions to Hindu, Jaina, Zoroastrian, Christian and Jewish religious institutions.

All those who adopted Islam accepted the five pillars of the faith that are:

There is one God, Allah, and prophet Muhammad is his messenger.
Offering prayers five times a day (namaz/salat).
Giving alms (Zakat).
Fasting during the month of Ramzan (Sawm).
Performing the pilgrimage to Mecca (Hajj).

People were occasionally identified in terms of the region from which they came. Migrant communities often termed as Mlechchha meant that they did not observe the norms of caste, society and spoke languages that were not derived from Sanskrit.

The Growth of Sufism:

In the early centuries of Islam, a group of religious minded people called Sufis turned to asceticism and mysticism in protest against the growing materialism of the caliphate.
Sufis were critical of the dogmatic definitions and scholastic methods of interpreting the Quran and sought an interpretation of it on the basis of their personal experience.

By the 11th century, Sufism evolved into a well developed movement.

The suits began to organise communities around the hospice or Khanqah (Persian) controlled by a teaching master known as Shaikh, Pir or Murshid. He enrolled disciples (murids) and appointed a successor (Khalifa).
Sufi Silsila means a chain, signifying a continuous link between master and disciple, stretching as an unbroken spiritual genealogy to the Prophet Muhammad.
When Shaikh died, his tomb-shrine (dargah) became the centre of devotion for his followers and practice of pilgrimage or ziyarat to his grave, particularly on death anniversary or urs (or marriage, signifying the union of his soul with God) started. The cult of Shaikh transformed into wali.

The Chishtis in the Sub-continent:

The Chishtis were the most important group of Sufis who migrated to India.
The Khanqah was the centre of social life.
Shaikh Nizamuddin’s hospice on the banks of river Yamuna in Ghiyaspur in the fourteenth century was very famous. The Shaikh lived here and met visitors in the morning and evening.
There was an open Kitchen (langar) and people from all walks of life came here from morning till late night.
Visitors who came here included Amir Hasan Sijzi, Amir Khusrau and Ziyauddin Barani.
Pilgrimage (Ziyarat) to tombs of Sufi saints was common. It was a practice for seeking the Sufis spiritual grace (Barakat).
The most revered shrine was ‘Gharib Nawaz’, the shrine of Khwaja Muinuddin at Ajmer.
This shrine was funded by Sultan Ghiyasuddin Khalji of Malwa. Emperor Akbar visited several times and constructed a mosque within the compound of dargah.
Specially trained musicians or qawwals performed music and dance to evoke divine ecstasy.
Baba Farid’s compositions in the local language were incorporated in the Guru Granth Sahib.
In Karnataka, the Sufis were inspired by the pre-existing bhakti traditions and composed Dakhani, Lurinama (lullabies) and Shadinama (wedding songs).
Sultans of Delhi always preferred the Sufis although there were instances of conflict between them.

New Devotional Paths in Northern India:

Kabir was a poet-saint of 14th-15th centuries.

Kabir’s verses were compiled in three distinct traditions
The Kabir Bijak is preserved by the Kabirpanth in Uttar Pradesh.
The Kabir Granthavali is associated with the Dadupanth in Rajasthan.
Many of his verses were included in the Adi Granth Sahib.
Kabir described the ultimate reality as Allah, Khuda, Hazarat and Pir. He also used terms from vedantic traditions, like alakh, nirakar, brahmin, atman, etc.
Kabir accepted all types of philosophy i.e. Vedantic traditions, Yogic traditions and Islamic ideas.
Kabir’s ideas probably crystallised through dialogue and debate.

The message of Guru Nanak is spelt out in his hymns and teachings, where he advocated a form of Nirguna bhakti.

According to Guru Nanak, the absolute or ‘rab’ had no gender or form. His ideas expressed through hymns called ‘Shabad’ in Punjabi.
Guru Arjan compiled Guru Nanak’s hymns along with the hymns of Baba Farid, Ravidas and Kabir in the Adi Granth Sahib. Later, Guru Gobind Singh included the compositions of Guru Tegh Bahadur and this scripture was known as the ‘Guru Granth Sahib.’
Mirabai was a famous woman-poet of Bhakti tradition. She composed many songs that were characterised by intense expression of emotions.

Mirabai’s song inspired poor and low caste people in Gujarat and Rajasthan.
Shankaradeva in the late fifteenth century was a leading proponent of Vaishnavism in Assam.He emphasised the need for ‘Naam Kirtan’ and encouraged the establishment of ‘Satra’ or monas tries and ‘naam ghar’ or prayer halls. His major compositions include the ‘Kirtana-ghosha’.

Religious Traditions of Northern India:

Religious traditions included a wide variety, written in several different languages and styles. These ranged from the direct language of the Vachanas of Basavanna to the Persian farman of the Mughal Emperors.
Historians have to understand that religious traditions like other traditions, are dynamic and change over time.

Some Key terms to remember:

Great Tradition: The cultural practices of dominant social categories were called the Great Tradition.
Little Tradition: These were that tradition which do not correspond with the Great Tradition.
Integration of cult: Modes of worship.
Jagannatha: The lord of the world.
Tantricism: Worship of the golden.
Alvar: Devotees of Vishnu in South India.
Nayanars: Devotees of Shiva in South India.
Saguna Bhakti: Bhakti focused on the worship of Shiva, Vishnu and Devi.
Nirguna Bhakti: Worshipping a shapeless or an abstract form of God.
Tavaram: Collection of Poems in Tamil.
Imam: Religious scholars of Islamic studies.
Sharia: Law of governing the Muslim community.
Maktubat: Letters written by Sufi-saints.
Tazkiras: Biographical account of saints.
Sangat: Religious society under which the followers assembled both in mornings and evening to listen Guru’s sermons.

Timeline:

1206 – Delhi Sultanate was set up

1236 – Death of Shaikh Muinuddin Chishti

1469 – Birth of Guru Nanak Dev Ji

1604 – Compilation of Guru Granth Sahib

1699 – Foundation of Khalsa Panth by Guru Gobind Singh Ji Some Major Religious Teachers in the Subcontinent. This Timeline indicates the period of the major saints and reforms era

500-800 – CE Appar, Sambandar, Sundaramurti in Tamil Nadu

800-900 – Nammalvar, Manikkavachakar, Andal, Tondaradippodi in Tamil Nadu The teaching of these saints influence entire the people of India.

1000-1100 – Al Hujwiri, Data Ganj Bakhsh in the Punjab, Ramanujacharya in Tamil Nadu

1100-1200 – Basavanna in Karnataka

1200-1300 – Jnanadeva, Muktabai in Maharashtra; Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti in Rajasthan; Bahauddin Zakariyya and Fariduddin Ganj-i Shakar in the Punjab; Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki in Delhi.

1300-1400 -Lai Ded in Kashmir, Lai Shahbaz Qalandar in Sind; Nizamuddin Auliya in Delhi; Ramananda in Uttar Pradesh; Chokhamela in Maharashtra; Sharafuddin Yahya Maneri in Bihar

1400-1500 – Kabir, Raidas, Surdas in Uttar Pradesh; Baba Guru Nanak in the Punjab; Vallabhacharya in Gujarat; Mir Sayyid Muhammad Gesu Daraz in Gulbarga, Shankaradeve in Assam; Tukaram in Maharashtra.

1500-1600 – Sri Chaitanya in Bengal; Mirabai in Rajasthan; Shaikh Abdul Quddus Gangohi, Malik Muhammad Jaisi, Tulsidas in Uttar Pradesh.

1600-1700 – Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi in Haryana; Miyan Mir in the Punjab.

The Maratha kingdom: Shivaji

Factors Leading to the Rise of the Marathas

The mountaneous country provided security to the Marathas, on the one hand, and made them hardy soldiers with a spirit of self-reliance and capacity for hard work, on the other.
The nature developed in the Marathas self reliance, courage, perseverance, a stern simplicity, a rough straightforwardness, a social equality and consequently pride in the dignity of man as man.
The civil institutions as also the religious systems maintained an equilibrium in the composite society, free from the shackles of rigidity.
The literature and language of the Marathas also acted as a unifying force.
The spread of the Bhakti movement in Maharashtra inculcated the spirit of oneness among the Marathas.
Ramdas Samarth, the author of the book Dasbodh, taught the philosophy of action or karma and exhorted Shivaji's son Sambhaji to unite all Marathas and to propagate the `Maharastra dharma'.
The fall of Khandesh, the gradual disappearance of Ahmadnagar and the creation of the Mughal vice-royalty in the Deccan affected every aspect of Maratha life, which induced an awakening among the Marathas as a nation under the leadership of Shivaji and others that followed him.

Shivaji (1647-80 A.D.)

Shivaji

He born in 1627 A.D. to Shahji Bhonsle and Jija Bai, in fort of Shivner, belonged to the Bhonsle clan.
Probably in 1637 or 1638 A.D. Dadaji became the guardian of Shivaji and the administration of the jagir remained under Dadaji's defacto control till his death in 1647 when Shivaji assumed full charge.
The jagir entrusted by Shahji to the care of Dadaji extended over the regions known as the Mavals.
But before that at the age of 18, he conquered Raigarh, Kondana and Torna from Bijapur (1645-47).
His real career of conquest began with his conquest of Javli (1656) from a Maratha chief (Chanda Rao More), which made him the master of the Mavala area or highlands (Mavali foot soldiers became a strong part of his army.)
His attack of Adil Shahi territories between 1657 & 58 A.D., and deputation of Afzal Khan by Adil Shahi ruler to punish Shivaji; Shivaji's murder of Afzal (1659).
Shivaji killed afzal khan
Deputation of Shaista Khan (Governor of Deccan) by Aurangzeb to put down the rising power of Shivaji (1660); attack on Shivaji by Mughal forces from the North and Bijapuri forces from the South.
Loss of Poona and several defeats for Shivaji between 1660 and 1663 A.D.; Shivaji's bold attack on Shaista's military camp and plunder of Surat (1664) and later Ahmednagar.
Appointment of Raja Jai Singh of Amber by Aurangazeb to put down Shivaji (1665) and Jai Singh's success in besieging Shivaji in the fort of Purandar and the signing of the Treaty of Purandar (1665).
Surrender of 23 forts (and also the territories around them) out of his 35 forts by Shivaji to Mughals.
Recognition of Shivaji's right to certain parts of Bijapur kingdown (some were already under Shivaji's control and others were to be conquerred) by the Mughals.
Grant of mansab of 5000 to Shivaji's son.
Shivaji's visit to Agra, his imprisonment and escape (1666); his silence for 3 years (1666-69) and renewal of conflict with Mughals by his second plunder of Surat (1670).
Four years of military conquests recoverning all his former forts and territories.
His coronation at Raigarh in 1674 A.D. and assumption of the title of "Haindava Dharmodharak" (Protector of Hinduism).
His alliance with the Qutb Shahis of Golconda and his campaign into Bijapur, Karnataka (1676-79) and conquest of Gingee (Jinji), Vellore, etc.
His refusal to share the newly conqueered territories with Qutb Shahis and his death in 1680.

Shivaji 's Administration: The Maratha kingdom and Confederacy

Shivaji's Administration

Shivaji was the master of extensive territories expanding upto Maharastra, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu.
His empire was divided into two parts: swaraj (own kingdom) or mulk-i-qadim (old territory).
And an undefined belt of land legally part of the Mughal empire which paid chauth but was not subject to Shivaji's administration.
A dictionary of official terms, entitled Raja Vyavahara Kosa, was prepared by a panel of experts under the supervision of Raghunath Pandit Hanumante.

Central Administration

Helped by Ashtapradhan (Eight Ministers) - not a council of ministers, for there is no collective responsibility, but only individual responsibility, i.e., each minister was directly responsible to Shivaji.

(i) Peshwa: Finances and general administration (later he became Prime Minister and very important);
(ii) Sar-i-Naubat: Senapati or military commandar, only a honorary post with on real military powers;
(iii) Majumdar or Amatya: Accountant General (but during the reign of the Peshwas, he became Revenue and Finance Minister);
(iv) Waqanavis: Intelligence, posts and household affairs (Similar to those of Home Minister of today);
(v) Surunavis or Sachiv: Also called "Chitnis" looked after correspondence.
(vi) Dabir Or Sumanta: Master of ceremonies;
(vii) Nyayadhish - Justice;
(viii) Panditrao - Charities and Religious Affairs.
Most of the administrative reforms of Shivaji are based on Malik Ambar's (Ahmednagar) reforms.

All ministers except the Panditrao and the Nyayadhish had to serve in war whenever necessary.

Revenue Administration

Assessment of land revenue based on mea

Points To Be Remembered

Sumant was also known as dabir. Similarly asta pradhans was also known as surunavis or chitnis.
The Maratha artillery in the third battle of Panipat was commanded by Ibrahim Khan Gardi.
The commander-in-chief of the Maratha troops in the third battle of Panipat was Viswas Rao.
An eyewitness account of the Third battle of Panipat has been provided by Kashiraj Pandit.
Baji Rao II became pensioner of the British and lived for more than thirty years at Bithur near Kanpur was Baji Rao II.
Holkar was the last Maratha chief to enter into a subsidiary alliance with the English.

surement; adoption of ‘Khathi’ of Ambar as the measuring rod.

Increase of land revenue from 33% to 40% in later years.
Division of “Swarajya” (own kingdom) into number of revenue divisions, called “prants” consisting of 2 or more districts.
Changes in the position of the hereditary revenue officials, variously called Deshmukhs, Deshpandes, Patils, Kulkarnis, etc.
Though he did not completely do away with these officials, he considerably reduced their powers by close supervision and strict collection of revenue from them.
Appointment of his own revenue officials (Subahdars or Karkuns in charge of revenue administration of prants).
Chauth and Sardeshmukhi: Both were collected not on his “Swaraja” but on an undefined belt of land which was legally part of the Mughal empire or the Deccan States; Chauth-1/4th of the land revenue of this unspecified belt of land paid to Marathas so that land would not be subjected to Maratha raids.
Saradeshmukhi - an additional levy of 10% on the lands of Maharasthra over which Marathas claimed hereditary rights, but which formed part of the Mughal Empire.

Military Administration

Payment of ordinary soldiers in cash, but of big chiefs and military commanders through the grant of revenues of "saranjam” or “mokasa” (Jagirs).
Participation of all ministers, except the last two (Nyayadhish and Panditrao), in war.
Heirarchy of army officials : Sar-i-Naubat (Senapati), Panch Hazari, Jumladar, Havaldar and Naik.
Army consisted of Infantry (Mavali footsoldiers played the most important role); cavalry (consisting of Bargis and Silahdars; the former were provided with horses and equipment by the state, while the latter maintained their own) and navy (consisted of two squadrons, each under a Muslim and a Hindu).
Forts-occupied an important position. Each fort was put under the charge of 3 officers of equal rank as a precaution against treachery, and frequently

Points To Be Remembered

Shivaji’s conquest of Javli, which commanded the Mavala area, was the beginning of his rise into prominence.
Shaista Khan was the maternal uncle of Aurangzeb.
Baji Rao-I assigned different territories to the prominent Maratha chiefs as their “Sphere of Influence”.
Shivaji killed Afzal Khan after eliciting information from the latter’s Brahmin envoy called Krishnai Bhaskar.
Shivaji’s greatest military feat was the invasion of Karnatik in 1677-78.
Tarf was a Maratha administrative division.
Santaji Ghorpade and Dhanaji Jadava were enterprising Maratha generals and defeated the Mughal armies a number of times.
Shivaji II is better known as Shahu.
Zulfiqur Khan was responsible for the release of Shahu from Mughal imprisonment.
Baji Rao I compelled the Nizam of Hyderabad to submit to the dictated treaty of Mungi-Shevagaon in 1728.
Baji Rao II was the last Peshwa of the Marathas.
Mirasdars were the collective names for deshmukhs and deshpandes.
After the third battle of Panipat, the lost fortunes of the Maratha empire were restored by Peshwa Madhav Rao I

transferred them (by the end of his reign, Shivaji had 240 forts under him).

Successors of Shivaji

Shambhaji (1608-89 A.D.)

War of succession between Shambhaji (elder son) and Rajaram (younger son of Shivaji), resulting in the victory of the former and imprisonment of the latter.
Protection and support to Akbar, the rebellious son of Aurangazeb; failure of Akbar against his father and his final departure to Persia (1687).
Shambhaji's capture at Sangameshvar by a Mughal noble and his execution.

Rajaram (1689-1700 A.D.)

Release of Rajaram and his succession to the throne with the help of the ministers at Raigarh.
His flight from Raigarh to Jinji in 1689 (Jinji remained his base till 1698) due to Mughal invasion; capture of Raigarh along with Shambhaji's wife and son (Shahu) by the Mughals.

Points To Be Remembered

q Baji Rao II became pensioner of the British and lived for more than thirty years at Bithur near Kanpur was Baji Rao II.
q Holkar was the last Maratha chief to enter into a subsidiary alliance with the English.
q The most famous of Peshwa Bajirao’s many achievements was the North Indian expedition of 1737-38.
q Mamlatdar was responsible for every branch of district administration.
q Nana Phadnavis was the chief accountant in the Maratha administration.
q The Peshwaship was abolished by the English at the time of Peshwa Baji Rao II
q The Peshwa were chitpawan brahmins.
q Shivjai III and Shabhaji II ruled from Kolhapur.
q Seat of Shahu’s kingdom was Satara.
q Santaji Ghorpade and Dhanaji Jadav, two able and active Maratha generals, were the heroes of Maratha history during the reign of Rajaram.
q Shivaji built a considerable army in famous which was stationed at Kolaba.
q The most in famous character in the Maratha history is that of Raghunath Rao.

Points To Be Remembered

q Sambhaji, distrusted of the Maratha leaders, invested in a Brahmin the supreme control of the administration and the title of Kavi-Kalash.
In 1698 Gingee fell to the Mughals. After that Satara become the Maratha capital.
q The new post of ‘Pratinidhi’ came into existence during the reign of Rajaram.
q Shivaji stationed his naval fleet at Kolaba.
q Shahu was the first Maratha ruler to get legal recognition from the Mughals.
q Patel was responsible for the collection of land revenue at the lowest unit, i.e. the village.
q Balutadar was the hereditary village servant or artisan.
q Kulkarni was the hereditary village accountant.
q Bhagdar or Patidar was the partner or shareholder of a joint village.
q Haliya was the bonded agricultural labourer.
q Mirsadar was the holder of the herditary rights in land.
q Upari was the cultivator of rented lands.

Fall of Jinji to Mughals (1698) and escape of Rajaram to Vishalgarh (Maharashtra).
Death of Rajaram at Satara, which had become the capital after the fall of Jinji.
Administrative changes - creation of the new post of “Pratinidhi”, thus taking the total number of ministers to 9 from 8.

Shivaji II & Tarabai (1700-1707 A.D.)
Succession of Shivaji II (the minor son of Rajaram) under the guardianship of his mother Tarabai.

Attack of Berar (1703), Baroda (1706) and Aurangabad (on several occasions).

Shahu (1707-1749 A.D.)

His release by the Mughal emperor (Bahadur Shah) and the beginning of civil war (1707-14) between him and Tarabai. Defeat of Tarabai's army by Shahu in the Battle of Khed (1708) and occupation of Satara.
Final defeat and imprisonment of Tarabai by Shahu in 1714; but the southern part of Maratha kingdom with its capital at Kolhapur continued to be under the control of the descendants of Rajaram (ShivajiII & later Shambhaji II).
Rise of Peshwaship and transformation of Maratha kingdom into an empire based on the principle of confederacy.

Peshwas
Balaji Vishwanath (1713-20 A.D.)

Began his careers as a small revenue official; given the title of “Sena Karte” (maker of the army) by Shahu in 1708; became his Peswa in 1713 and made the post of Peshwa the most important and powerful as well as hereditary.
Played a crucial role in the civil war and was responsible for the final victory of Shahu in it by winning over almost all the Maratha sardars to the side of Shahu.
Conclusion of an agreement with the Sayyid Brothers (1719) by which the Mughal Emperor (Faruk Siyar) recognised Shahu as the king of "Swarajya", released all the family members of Shahu, and allowed Shahu to collect Chauth and Sardeshmukhi from the six Mughal provinces of the Deccan.

Baji Rao I (1720-40 A.D.)

Important Battles
1.   First Battle of Tarain-1191: Prithviraj Chauhan defeated Muhammad Gori.
2   Second Battle of Tarain-1192: Prithviraj Chauhan defeated by Muhammad Gori.
3.   Battle of Chandawar-1194: Jaichand, the ruler of Kanauj, was defeated by Ghoi.
4.   First Battle of Panipat-1526: Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi.
5.   Battle of Khanwa-1527: Babur defeated Rana Sanga.
6.   Battle of Ghaghar-1529: Babur defeated Afghans.
7.   Battle of Chausa-1539: Shershah defeated Humayun.
8.   Battle of Kanauj or Bilgram-1540: Shershah defeated Humayun, captured Delhi.
9.   Second Battle of Panipat-1556: Akbar defeated Hemu.
10.   Battle of Talikota or Bannihatti-1565: Vijayanagar defeated by combined forces of five Muslim states.
11.   The Battle of Haldighati-1576: Akbar defeated Rana Pratap.
12.   Battle of Asirgarh-1601: Last battle of Akbar.
13.   Qandhar invested by the Persians-1606.
14.   Qandhar relieved by the Mughals-1607
15.   Mewar submits to Mughals-1615.
16.   Qandhar again taken by Persia-1622.
17.   Qandhar taken back by the Mughals-1638.
18.   Qandhar again lost to Persia-1649 and never recovered again.
19.   Battle of Dharmat and Samugarh-1658: Dara defeated by Aurangzeb.
20.   Battle of Khajwab and Deorai-1659.
21.   Battle of Jajah-1707.

Innumerable successful expeditions into north India to weaken the Mughal empire and to make the Marathas “Supreme Power” in India. He said “Let us strike at the trunk of the withering tree and the branches will fall of themselves".

Balaji Baji Rao (1740-61 A.D.)

Popularly known as “Nana Saheb”, he succeeded his father at the age of 20.
After the death of Shahu (1749), the management of all state affairs was left in his hands. Shahu died childless and though he had nominated Ram Raja (a grandson of Rajaram) as the successor, the latter was imprisoned at Satara by the Peshwa on the suspicion that he was an imposter.
Agreement between the Mughal emperor (Ahmad Shah) and the Peshwa (1752) that the latter would protect the Mughal empire from internal and external (Ahmed Shah Abdali) enemies in return for the `Chauth' of the North- West Provinces and the total revenues of Agra and Ajmer provinces.
This agreement brought the Marathas in direct conflict with Ahmad Shah Abdali of Afghanistan.
Third Battle of Panipat (Jan. 14, 1761 A.D.) - Defeat of the Marathas and murder of Viswas Rao (son of Nana Sahab) and Sadashiv Rao Bhau (cousin of Nana Sahab) and several other Maratha leaders and soldiers (28,000) by Ahmed Shah Abdali.
It decided who was not to rule India instead of who was to.
Death of Nana Saheb on hearing the bad news (June 23, 1761).
After the Third Battle of Panipat the rulers were:
Madhav Rao (1761-72 A.D.)
Narayana Rao (1772-73 A.D.)
Sawai Madhav Rao (1773-95 A.D.)
Baji Rao II (1795-1818 A.D.) q

Spread of the Indian Culture

The spread of Indian culture abroad

Asian Countries

The spread of Indian culture and civilization to the other parts of Asia constitutes an important chapter in the history of India.
India had established commercial contacts with other countries from the earliest times.
It had inevitably resulted in the spread of Indian languages, religions, art and architecture, philosophy, beliefs, customs and manners.
Indian political adventurers even established Hindu kingdoms in some parts of South East Asia.

However, this did not lead to any kind of colonialism or imperialism in the modern sense.
On the other hand, these colonies in the new lands were free from the control of the mother country.
But they were brought under her cultural influence.

Central Asia

Central Asia was a great centre of Indian culture in the early centuries of the Christian era.
Several monuments have been unearthed in the eastern part of Afghanistan. Khotan and Kashkar remained the most important centres of Indian culture.

Several Sanskrit texts and Buddhist monasteries were found in these places.
Indian cultural influence continued in this region till the eighth century. Indian culture had also spread to Tibet and China through Central Asia.

India and China

China was influenced both by the land route passing through Central Asia and the sea route through Burma.

Buddhism reached China at the beginning of the first century A.D. A number of Chinese pilgrims like Fahien and Hiuen Tsang visited India.
On the other side, hundreds of Buddhist monks like Gunabhadra, Vajrabothi, Dharmadeva and Dharmagupta visited China. Indian scholars translated many Sanskrit works at the request of Chinese emperors.
This contact with China continued even in the thirteenth century when the Mongols established their empire in China.
Chinese art had also been influenced by Indian art.

India and Tibet

Tibet was influenced by India from the seventh century.
The famous Buddhist king Gampo founded the city of Lhasa and introduced Buddhism.
The Tibetan alphabet was devised with the help of Indian scholars. Later, the Indian scholars helped with the establishment of Lamaism in Tibet.
In the eleventh century, the Pala dynasty of Bengal had close contacts with Tibet.
When Bengal was attacked by the Muslim rulers, many Buddhist monks sought shelter in Tibet.

India and Sri Lanka

Despite having different political history, Sri Lanka experienced a great cultural influence from India.
Buddhist missionaries had spread not only the religious faith but also cultural traditions.
The art of stone carving went to Sri Lanka from India. In the fifth century, Buddha Ghosha visited Sri Lanka and consolidated there the Hinayana Buddhism.
The famous paintings of Sigiriya were modelled on the Ajantha paintings.

Indian Culture in South East Asia

Indian culture had extended its mighty influence in the South East Asian region consisting of the Malay Archipelago and Indo-China.
They are located across the Bay of Bengal.
Being fertile and rich in minerals, these lands attracted the attention of the Indians.
Moreover, the east coast of India is studded with numerous ports and Indians undertook frequent voyages to these lands.
The ancient traditions refer to traders' voyages to Suvarnabhumi, (the land of gold) a name generally given to all the countries of East Asia. Indians began to colonize East Asia in the Gupta period.
It was further encouraged by the Pallavas.
The Indian colonists established great kingdoms and some of them lasted for more than a thousand years.
A number of dynasties with Indian names ruled in various parts.
Till the arrival of Islam in the fifteenth century, Indian culture dominated this region.

Cambodia (Kambhoja)

They influenced the native people called the Khemers.
The ruling dynasty was known as Kambojas and their country was Kamboja or modern Cambodia.
Under the early rulers, Saivism and Vaishnavism made steady progress. The Kamboja empire at its greatest extent included Laos, Siam, part of Burma and the Malay peninsula.
Numerous Sanskrit inscriptions give us a detailed history of its kings. A number of Hindu literary works like the Vedas, the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, Panini's grammar, Hindu philosophical treatises were all known to the people of Cambodia.
Like the Pallava kings, they were called Varmans. Yasovarman and Suryavarman II were two well-known rulers. Temples were built in South Indian style.
There are plenty of Sanskrit inscriptions.
The most famous of these temples was the temple (wat) of Vishnu built by Suryavarman II in his capital city Angkor.
It was popularly called as the Angkorwat Temple.

It is standing on top of a terraced structure.
Each terrace is a sort of a covered gallery that contains numerous relief sculptures.
The temple is constructed on the Dravidian style and the sculptures depict episodes from the Ramayana and the Mahabharata.
The Kambhoja kingdom declined only in fifteenth century.

Champa

Champa or South Annam is situated to the east of Cambodia.
The first Hindu dynasty was established by Sri Mara in the second century A.D.
A number of Sanskrit inscriptions throw light on the history of Champa.
Twelve Indian dynasties ruled over Champa and by the thirteenth century, Champa was annexed to Cambodia.
Under its Hindu rulers the Hindu religion and culture, customs and manners were introduced in Champa.
Saivism and Vaishnavism flourished. Buddhism also existed side by side. Various works on Hindu philosophy, grammar, fine arts and astrology were written.

Siam or Thailand

There were several states in Siam following Indian culture.
Thai script was developed with the help of Indian scholars.

The traditional laws of that country were composed on the model of Dharmasastras.
The temples at Bangkok contain many sculptures depicting the Ramayana.

Rama with the monkey army adorning the walls of temple in Thailand

Sumatra and Java

The Malay Archipelago had remained an important link between India and the Far East.
Several Hindu kingdoms existed here between the fifth to fifteenth centuries A.D.
The most important Hindu kingdom in the big island of Sumatra was Sri Vijaya.
It was a great centre of trade and culture in the seventh century.
Subsequently, the Sri Vijaya kingdom developed into a powerful maritime and commercial power known as the Sailendra empire extending its sway over the neighbouring islands of Java, Bali, Borneo and over Cambodia.
The Sailendra rulers were Mahayana Buddhists and maintained cordial relations with the Indian kingdoms of the Palas of Bengal and the Cholas of Tamil Nadu.
Rajaraja Chola allowed the Sailendra king Maravijayottungavarman to build a Buddhist monastery at Nagapattinam. His son Rajendra conquered the Sailendra kingdom for some time.
Later they became independent. The Sailendra empire continued intact till the eleventh century A.D.
A Hindu kingdom was established in Java as early as the fourth century A.D.
In Central Java arose the kingdom of Mataram which became a strong centre of Hindu religion and culture.
It was conquered by the Sailendras of Sumatra.
Till the ninth century, Java continued to be a part of the Sailendra empire.
Later it regained its independence. Java attained greatness and splendour in art under Sailendra rule.
The greatest monument of Indo-Java art is the Borobudur which was built during A.D. 750-850 under the patronage of the Sailendras.
It is situated on the top of a hill.
It consists of nine successive terraces, crowned by a bell-shaped stupa at the centre of the topmost terrace.
The open galleries in the terraces contain 2000 bas-reliefs (small carved stone figures) illustrating various incidents in the life of the Buddha.
The lower parts are rich in decoration while the upper portions are plain and unadorned.
Borobudur is described as an epic in stone, the most wonderful Buddhist stupa in the world.

Borobudur Temple

In the twelfth century, eastern Java with Kadiri as its capital developed into the leading kingdom of Java.
In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries which marked the golden age of Javanese culture, Majapahit became the capital of the far-flung Javanese empire which included the neighbouring islands.
Indian art and literature flourished in Java to an extent unknown elsewhere.
Still, ruins of hundreds of temples and manuscripts based on the Sanskrit language are found in Java.
The Ramayana and the Mahabharata were popular and even today furnish the theme for their popular shadow-play.
The fall of Majapahit brought to an end all artistic activity in Java.

Bali

Bali came under the rule of Hindu dynasties as early as the sixth century.
I-Tsing refers to the prevalence of Buddhism there in the seventh century.
The stone and copper plate inscriptions from that island show that it was colonised directly from India.
Later it became subordinate to Java.
Its people continue to be Hindus and even today we find the prevalence of the caste system there.

Myanmar

The cultural contacts between India and Burma (now Myanmar) dates back to the period of Asoka, who sent his missionaries there to preach Buddhism.
Many Hindu kingdoms existed in Burma. Pali and Sanskrit were the languages of Burma till the thirteenth century.
Both Hinayana and Mahayana Buddhism were followed by the Burmese.
Thus for nearly fifteen hundred years Hindu kings were ruling over numerous islands of the Malay Archipelago and over the Indo-China peninsula.
Indian religions and Indian culture moulded the lives of the primitive inhabitants of these regions who were elevated to a higher plan of civilization.

Other Countries

India has interacted with the rest of the world since the middle of the third millennium B. C.
Indian travelled abroad and leave the footprints of their Culture. They also bought to the soil ideas, impressions, customs, traditions and knowledge of the distant lands.
Indian Culture and Civilization is spread in various parts of the world by means of voluntary acceptance of cultural and spiritual values of India not merely by conquest or threat to life.
In ancient times, traders from India went to distant lands such as China, Rome, Indonesia and Cambodia for business.
During the time of emperor Ashoka, Kingdom Kalinga had trade relations with Sri Lanka. Traders established trade relations and cultural links.
The universities were the most important centres of cultural interaction like Nalanda and Valabhi where Chinese pilgrim Huien Tsang visited.

Nalanda university location and impact on the world

Acharya Kamalasheel of Nalanda University was invited by the King of Tibet. In the eleventh century, the head of the Vikramashila University Acharya Ateesha went to Tibet and gave foundation to Buddhism in Tibet.
A large number of Tibetans embraced Buddhism. Even the king became a Buddhist. He declared Buddhism as the State Religion.
In Europe, the groups of Indian wanderers were famous as GYPSIES while they called themselves ROMAS and their language as Romani.
The Romas are known for their dance and music and it is said that every Roma musician is a splendid artist.
They use to travel through Iran, Iraq, Turkey, Persia, Europe and other countries. Now they are settled in Greece, Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary, Russia and Switzerland.
India maintained commercial contact with China, Central Asia, West Asia and the Roman Empire.
The Silk Route was primarily opened for trade and later it was used by scholars, monks and missionaries.

This route served as a channel for Cultural Transmission and Indian Culture was spread in Central Asia.
Kuchi in Central Asia was an important centre of Indian Culture. Discoveries of Ancient Stupas, temples, monasteries, images and paintings are the evidence of the Cultural exchange that took place between India and the Countries of Central Asia.
Indian Culture first entered China with two monk scholars – Kashyapa Martanga and Dharmarakshita who went to China with the invitation of Chinese Emperor Ming Ti.
The Chinese people were highly cultured people and they wrote about Indians and Indian Culture which became the most important source of India History.
Buddhism was declared as the State Religion by Wei Dynasty. Thousands of Sanskrit Books were translated into Chinese.
Korea received Indian Cultural elements through China.
Sundo was the first Buddhist Monk who entered Korea.
Indian monks brought philosophy, religion, art of making images, paintings and metallurgy. Monasteries and temples acted as centres of devotion and learning all over Korea.
it՚s more than fifteen hundred years that Indian Culture came into link with Japan It was the Korean emperor who sent a Buddhist statue, sutras, instruments for worship, artists, sculptors, paintings and architects as gifts for the Japanese Emperor. In Japan, Sanskrit was soon accepted as a sacred language.
King Ashoka made great efforts to propagate Buddhism outside India. He also sent his Children to Sri Lanka to spread Buddha՚s message which was transmitted orally. The first monasteries built in Sri Lanka were Mahavihara and Agbayani. Pali became their literary language. Indian Art forms, themes, styles, techniques of paintings, dance, folklore and architecture also reached Sri Lanka.
People and Culture Of India began to reach Myanmar which is situated en route to China. Indian tradition was quite strong. Court, Astrologers, soothsayers and professors were known to be Brahmins called ponnas.
Indian Culture began to reach Thailand by Indian Traders, teachers and missionaries. Sanskrit names were given to Thai Kingdoms such as Dwaravati, Shrivijay, sukhodaya and Ayutthiya. Even the street names such as Rajaram, Rajarani , Mahajaya remind of Ramayana. In the capital city of Thailand, Bangkok has 400 and more temples.
Indian Culture was carried to the distant land of Vietnam by traders and princes who migrated and established themselves as pioneers in the field of politics and economics in Vietnam and Cambodia.
Indian Culture also travelled to Indonesia.

Prambanan is the largest Shiva Temple built in Indonesia՚s Island of Java. The stories of Ramayana and Krishna were carved on the walls of the temples.
India՚s links with West Asia by land as well as sea route goes back to ancient times. The ties between the two-culture zone became close with rising and spread of Islamic Civilizations in West Asia. Indian contributions to Arab civilization was Mathematics as the Arabs acknowledged their debt to India by calling Mathematics “Hindisa” . A number of Arab sources dating back to the tenth and thirteenth century inform us about Indian work on medicine and therapeutics.
Southern India had the monopoly of the products that were in great demand in the west represented mainly by the Roman Empire which became India՚s best customer.
Items like pepper, betel, spices, scents and precious stones like beryl, gem, diamond, ruby, pearls, ivory, silk and muslins were in great demand.
Trade thus became a very important mode that helped in the spread of Indian Culture abroad. Indian ships sailed across the seas and reach foreign shores to establish commercial ties with several countries.
The Literature, Art and sculpture of the neighbouring countries clearly show the influence of Indian Culture and Civilization.

1. EUROPE
(i) Roman empire broken into two by 6th century:

West, with capital at Rome, overwhelmed by Slav and Germanic tribesmen. (Roman empire). It followed catholic Church.
East, with capital at Constantinople, encompassed eastern Europe, Turkey, Syria and North Africa. (Byzantine Empire). The church of the east was called Greek Orthodox Church which later spread to Russia.

(ii) Byzantines acted as a bridge between Greco-Roman civilization and Arabs. Byzantine empire disappeared in middle of 15th century when Constantinople fell to Turks.

(iii) After collapse of western roman empire cities disappeared and trade declined (dark ages). Revival occurred around 10th century.

(iv) 12^th to 14^th century saw rapid progress and prosperity and a new outlook towards life. Universities were established and helped in dissemination of knowledge and growth of new ideas. This eventually led to Renaissance.

2. GROWTH OF FEUDALISM
(i) Most powerful elements were the chiefs who dominated large tracts of land with military power and played an important part in government. King was in effect the most I powerful feudal chief controlling chiefs by making them take oath of loyalty as vassals I to the king. Tensions arose time and again between the king and vassals (fiefs). I Government was thus dominated by landed aristocracy which was hereditary. Features of feudal system:

Landed aristocracy
Serfdom and Manor system
Military organization

(ii) Serfs = peasants who had to compulsorily work on the land.
Manor = the house where the landlord lived. Serfs had to cultivate the lands surrounding the manor and give a part of the produce to the landlord. Landlord was tasked with I dispensing justice and maintaining law and order. This system disappeared from Western I Europe after 14th century.

(iii) Cavalry gained popularity in warfare because of iron stirrup and a new harness which I allowed the horse to pull twice the weight it pulled earlier. These inventions came to I West from East Asia and were introduced in India from 10th century. As king was unable I to manage the growing size, army was decentralized and the feudal lords got to the I responsibility of the army. In most cases, fiefs collected taxes from peasantry, gave a I tribute to the king, maintained the army and used the rest for personal consumption. I

(iv) In India, local fiefs (Samantas) exercised similar powers, with the peasantry dependent upon them.

(v) Catholic Church took on political functions and moral authority shaping Cultural life in Europe. Many monastic orders and denominations were established from revenue I obtained from tax free land grants by feudal chiefs and kings. Churches served the poor I and needy, gave medical aid and shelter to travellers and served as centres for education I and learning.

3. THE ARAB WORLD
Islam united warring Arab tribes into a powerful empire.
(i) Prophet Muhammad (570-632 A.D)
(a) He is the founder of Islam.
(b) He grew up in the deserts of Arabia.
(c) His first converts were the Arabs.
(d) Sind and Multan were conquered by the Arabs by 712 A.D.
(ii) Abbasids came to power as Caliphs at Baghdad in middle of 8th century. Claimed to belong to same tribe as prophet Muhammad. Most powerful empire for ~150 yrs. Controlled parts of North Africa, Egypt, Syria, Iran and Iraq and important trade routes connecting India and China with the Mediterranean. Region attained prosperity by levying taxes on trade and due to enterprising Arab merchants.

(iii) Arabs assimilated scientific knowledge and administrative skills of empires they had overrun. Many Chinese inventions like compass, paper, printing, gun powder reached Europe from China through Arabs

(iv) Bait-ul-hikmat = house of wisdom - translating literature from various empires into Arabic.

(v) India did not enjoy close cultural contact with Arabs until Sindh was conquered in 8th century. Decimal system reached Arabs from India after this and was popularized by Al-Khwarizmi. Suryasiddhanta (Astronomy - Aryabhatta) and Charaksamhita, Sushrutsamhita were also translated.

Arab Invasion in India
Muhammad-bin-Qasim
(i) Al-Hajjajj, the Governor of Iraq sent Muhammad-bin-Qasim to India
(ii) He Conquered Sind with the permission of Caliph Walid

Battle of Rewar
(i) Fought between Muhammad-bin-Qasim and Dahir the ruler of Sind
(ii) Dahir was defeated. Sind and Multan was captured.
(iii) Muhammad-bin-Qasim called Multan as The City of Gold'

Administrative System
(i) Sind and Multan were divided into number of Iqtas or districts by Muhammad-bin-Qasim and Arab military officers headed the Iqtas.
(ii) The sub-divisions of the districts were administered by the local Hindu Officers.
(iii) Jizya was imposed on non-Muslims.

Muhammad bin Qasim's Army
(i) 25,000 troops with 6000 Camels, 6000 Syrian horses, 3000 Bactrian Camels and an artillery force with 2000 men, advanced guards, and five catapults.

End of Muhammad-bin-Qasim
(i) Caliph Walid was succeeded by Caliph Sulaiman.
(ii) He was an enemy of Al-Hajjaj, the Governor of Iraq.
(iii) Muhammad-bin Qasim was the son-in-law of Al-Hajjaj, so he dismissed him and sent to Mesopotamia as a prisoner where he was tortured to death. For more than 150 years, Sind and Multan continued to remain as the part of the Caliph's Empire.

Rani Bai's heroic defense against Muhammad bin Qasim

(i) The wife of Dahir and the other women of Sind put up a heroic defense within the Fort of Rewar.

Effects of Arab Conquest
(i) The subjugation of Sind made way for Islam into India.
(ii) The art of administration, astronomy, music, painting, medicine and architecture were learnt by Arabs from our land and they spread astronomy, Indian Philosophy, and numerals to Europe.

Indian Impact
(i) Brahma Siddhanta- a Sanskrit work of Brahma Gupta was translated into Arabic in which the names of Indian Scientists like Sindbad, Bhala, Manaka are mentioned.
(ii) In a hospital at Baghdad, Dhana was appointed as a chief Medical officer.
(iii) A serious disease of Caliph Harun-al-Rashid Manaka, a physician cured Europe stagnated due to rigid views of Catholic church. India also did not progress much. Arab science declined after 14th century due to growing orthodoxy and other political developments.

4. EAST AND SOUTH EAST ASIA
(i) China: attained climax in 8th and 9th centuries under Tang dynasty. Exported countless goods to the West through Silk Route. Tangs were replaced by Sung dynasty in 10th century and then growing weakness led to Mongol invasion inl3th century. Mongols unified north and south china with help of highly disciplined and mobile cavalry. They also ruled over Vietnam and Korea for some time. Marco Polo spent some time at the court of famous Mongol ruler Kublai Khan. Visited Malabar on his way back to Italy by sea.

(ii) Sailendra dynasty: Palembang (Sumatra), Java, Malay peninsula and parts of Thailand -Sanskrit and Buddhist centres of learning - Borobudur Temple (Buddha) = mountain carved into 9 terraces surmounted by a Stupa.

(iii) Kambuja dynasty: Cambodia and Annam (South Vietnam) - group of temples near Angkor Thom = ~200 temples in 3.2 sq km area; largest = Angkor Vat - Temples contain statues of gods, goddesses & nymphs.
Temples in the above mentioned locations had panels containing scenes from Ramayana and Mahabharat. These were also the inspiration for literature, folk dances, songs, puppets and statues. Temple building here coincided with temple building in India. Buddhism declined in India and flourished here. Buddha was brought into Hinduism later in India whereas Hindu Gods were brought under Buddhist fold in SE Asia.

(iv) Traders of various parts of the world visited SE asia and led to comingling of different cultures. Religious tolerance existed and Indonesia and Malaya were converted to islam only after its consolidation in India. Elsewhere, Buddhism continued to flourish. Commercial and cultural contacts were snapped only after the Britishers and Dutch came in the 17th century.

Arrival of Europeans:

The Portuguese

From very early times, India carried on an extensive trade with Europe. It was rudely interrupted by the rise of the Saracens and afterwards by the Ottaman empire.
To Portugal belongs the credit of finding new routes to India.
In 1497 Vasco-da-Gama sailed from Lisbon, doubled the Cape of Good Hope, and sailing north-east enchored off Calicut in 1498 A.D.
Vasco da Gamma
The Cape of Good Hope had been discovered ten years earlier (1487 A.D.) by Bartholomew Diaz.
The Raja of Calicut, known as the Zamorin, welcomed Vasco-da-Gama and received him graciously. From Calicut he sailed for Cochin and established a factory there.
In order to consolidate the position of the Portuguese in India and to destroy Muslim trade by seizing Aden, Ormuz and Malacca, the king of Portugal (1505 A.D.) decided to appoint a governor in India for a three years term with a sufficient force to protect the Portuguese settlements there.
Francisco de Amedia was appointed to this post with special instructions to erect fortresses at Kilwa, Anjadiva, Kannanur and Cochin.
He won several victories and made the Portuguese power supreme in the Indian Ocean.
He was totally against the idea of establishing a Portuguese empire in the East. This policy is known as the “Blue Water Policy”.
Almedia was succeeded by Alfonso de Albuquerque (1509 A.D.). Albuquerque is regarded as the real founder of Portuguese power in India.
Alfonso-de- Albuquerque
He wanted to make Goa the headquarter of the Portuguese in India.
In November 1510 A.D. he captured Goa, a rich port which then belonged to the sultan of Bijapur.
Bitter persecution of Muslims was one serious drawback of Albuquerque’s policy.
During his rule Albuquerque did his best to strengthen the fortifications of Goa and enhance its commercial importance.
The next important Portuguese viceroyality in India was Nino da Cunha who reached India in November 1529 A.D.
Early in the following year he shifted the headquarters of his government from Cochin to Goa.
When Humayun came into conflict with Bahadur Shah of Gujarat, the latter enlisted Portuguese support by ceding to them the island of Bassein.
During Cunha’s viceroyalty attempts were also made to extend Portuguese influence in Bengal by settling many Portuguese there with Hooghly as their headquarters.
Gracia de Noronha succeeded Nino de Cunha as the Portuguese governor in India (1538 A.D.).
Gradually the Portuguese established other important settlements in India: Daman, Salsette, Chaul near Bombay, St. Thome near Madras and Hooghly in Bengal. They also extended their authority over the greater part of Ceylon.
The arrival in India of the famous Jesuit saint Francis Xavier in the company of the Portuguese governor Martin Alfonso de Sousa in 1542 A.D. was an event of great significance, since it marked the beginning of ‘ecclesiastical supremacy’ in Portuguese India.

The Dutch

Cornelis de Hustman was the first Dutchman who, after doubling the Cape of Good Hope, reached Sumatra and Bantam in 1596 A.D.

Points To Be Remembered

For Dutch Pulicat was the main centre in India till 1690, after which Negapatnam replaced it.
Marathas captured Salsette and Bassein in 1739 from the Portuguese.
Cochin was the early capital of Portuguese in India. Later Goa replaced it.
French East India Company was formed by Colbert under state patronage in 1664.
Establishment of the first French factory at Surat Francois Caron in 1668.
Establishment of a factory at Masulipatam by Maracara in 1669.
French acquisition of Chandranagore in Bengal from the Mughal Governor in 1690.
Danish settlements at Tranquebar (in Tamilnadu) in 1620 and at Serampore (Bengal) in 1676.
The Mughal farman of 1717 granted by Farrukh Siyar confirmed the privileges of 1691 (By 1691 farmans, Aurangzeb exempted the company from payment of custom duties in Bengal in return for an annual payment) and extended them to Gujarat and Deccan.
Grant of a farman by Jahangir permitting the English to erect a factory at Surat in 1613.

This gave the Dutch much encouragement for further enterprise, and within a few years new companies for the Indian trade were formed.
These were amalgamated by the State-General with the grant of a charter, dated 20th March, 1602 A.D., into the United East India Company of Netherland.
The company was also empowered to carry on war, to conclude treaties, to take possession of territory and to erect fortresses.
The Dutch captured Amboyna from the Portuguese in 1605 A.D., and displaced them from the Spice Islands in 1619 A.D.
Commerce drew the Dutch to India also, where they established factories on the Coromondal Coast in Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Bengal and Bihar.
Their principal factories were at Pulicat (1610 A.D.), Surat (1616 A.D.), Bimlipatam (1641 A.D.), Chinsura (1653 A.D.), Baranagore, Kasimbazar, Patna, Nagapatam and Cochin.
The Dutch gained monopoly of the spice trade in the East throughout the 17th century. They carried from India to the islands of the Far East various articles such as indigo manufactured in the Yamuna valley, textile and silk from Bengal, Gujarat and Coromondal, Saltpetre from Bihar and opium and rice from the Ganga valley.
While the Dutch were drawn more and more to the Malay Archipelago, the English concentrated their attention on India. Defeat in the battle near Hooghly dealt a crushing blow to Dutch ambitions in India.

Points To Be Remembered

Till 1687 all the English factories on the West Coast were under the control of the President and Council of their factory at Surat.
In 1687 Bombay replaced Surat as the headquarters of the Company on the West Coast.
In 1688 the English under Sir John Child captured many Mughal ships off the West Coast and disrupted the traffic of Haj pilgrims.
Transformation of the East India Company into a joint-stock company by a charter of Cromwell in 1657.
A rival company was formed by a group of merchants under Sir William Courten in 1635 and it was granted licence to trade in the East by Charles I
Formation of a new rival company, known as the “English Company of Merchants Trading to the East Indies” (1698), which sent Sir William Norris as an ambassader to Aurangzeb.
The amalgamation of both the companies (by the award of the Earl of Goldolphin—1708) under the title of “The United Company of Merchants of England Trading to the East Indies”.
The Dutch established factories at Masulipatam (1605), Pulicat (1610), Surat (1616), Karikal (1645), Chinsura (1653), Kasim bazar, Baranagore, Patna, Balasore, Negapatam (all in 1658) and Cochin (1633).

The English and The French

The English

The victory of the English over the Spanish armada and the reports of India’s wealth aroused in the minds of the English a strong desire to establish trade relations with India.
It was on 31st December 1600 A.D., that the first momentous step was taken in respect of England’s trade in the East by the incorporation, under a charter from queen Elizabeth, of the East India company under its first title of “The Governor and company of Merchants of London Trading into the East Indies”.
Monopoly of trade in the East was granted to it for fifteen years.
On the south-east coast of India the English had started a factory in 1611 A.D. at Masulipatam.

Points To Be Remembered

In the early years of the 16th century the Portuguese sided with Cochin against Calicut.
Nino do Cunha was the viceroy who transferred the Portuguese headquarter from Cochin to Goa.
There were Portuguese settlements in Hugli, Satgaon and Chittagong.
The Portuguese sent Jesuist to Akbar’s court to instruct him in the doctrines of the Christian faith.
Aurangzeb seized the English factory at Surat.
Sir Joshua Child was the earliest to opine that it was necessary to found a sure English dominion in India for all time to come.
Job Charnock was permitted by the Mughals to build a factory at Calcutta in 1690.
The Mughal emperor, Farrukhsiyar, was cured of a painful disease by an English surgeon called Willaim Hamilton.
Farrukhsiyar granted imperial firmans to the English East India Company for recognising the right of the company to trade in Bengal. These firmans formed the “Magna Carta of the Company”.
Francisco Pelsaert was the chief of the Dutch factory at Agra. He lived in India during Jahangir’s reign.
William Edwards was the English envoy who came during Jehangir’s reign to India in 1615. His mission ended in failure.
The Dutch established a factory at Petapoli on the Golcunda coast (1604-5).
Nagapatam was the chief station of the Dutch in India.
Bombay replaced Surat as headquarters of the English East India Company (1687).
Trancobar was a Danish settlement in India.
Mahe was fortified by French in 1724.
Bengal was controlled by the British. In 1700 it became a separate charge under a president and council at Fort William.
A treaty was concluded in 1619 between the English and the Dutch by which both their trading companies agreed to share the cost and profit of the Indian trade.
By 1650 the English had set themselves up at Balasore in Orissa.

Their position was improved by the ‘Golden farman’ granted to them by the sultan of Golcunda in 1632 A.D. Francis Day, who was responsible for opening the factory at Armagon, obtained permission from the ruler of Chandragiri, to build a fortified factory at Madras (Fort St. George).
In Bengal the company wanted to have fortified settlement at Hoogly so that force could be used if necessary.
The mission of William Hedges, the first governor and agent of the English company in Bengal in 1682 A.D. to Shayista Khan proved to be of no avail.
In 1686 A.D. the English captured the imperial forts of Thana, Malded Hijili on the east of the Midnapore district, and stormed the Mughal fortification at Balasore.
But the English were forced to leave Hoogly and to retire to a place at the mouth of the river. Job

Charnock, their agent, opened negotiations for permission to returned to Sutanauti.

After the conclusion of peace between the Company and the Mughal governmor in 1690 A.D. Job Charnock came back to Bengal as agent and founded the city of Calcutta and built Fort William.
The most important event after the death of Aurangzeb was the diplomatic mission led by Jhon Surman in 1715 A.D. to the court of Mughal emperor Farrukhsiyar, resulting in the grant of three famous farmans.
The farmans gave the Company many valuable privileges. In Bengal it exempted the Company’s imports and exports from additional custom duties excepting the annual payment of Rs. 3000.
The Company was allowed to rent additional land around Calcutta. At Surat, the Company was exempted from the levy of all duties for its exports and imports in lieu of an annual payment of Rs. 10,000, and the coins of the Company (minted at Bombay) were to have currency throughout the Mughal empire.
Thomas Pitt, governor of Madras obtained from the Nawab of Karnataka a grant of five village near Madras in 1708 A.D.

The French

It was in 1664 A.D. that Colbert, the minister of Louis XIV, organized the French East India company.
The company started the work and captured the islands of Bourbon and Mauritius in the Indian Ocean.
In 1667 A.D. an expedition was sent under. Francios Caron, who established first French factory in India at Surat.
In 1669 A.D. Marcara founded another French factory at Masulipatam by securing a patent from the sultan of Golcunda in 1673 A.D.
Francois Martin obtained from Sher Khan Lodi, governor of Valikondapuram, a site for a factory.
Thus “began in modest fashion the historic role of Pondicherry”. In Bengal, the French laid the foundation of their famous settlement of Chandannagar in 1690 A.D. on a site granted to them by Shayista Khan.
The Dutch occupied Pondicherry in 1693 A.D. It was restored to the French by the Treary of Ryswick concluded in September 1697 A.D.
There was an unfavourable turn in the position of the French in India after the war of Spanish succession had broken out.
They had to abandon their factories at Surat, Masulipatam and Bautam by the beginning of the 18th century.
Further deterioration came after the death of Francois Martin on 31st December 1706 A.D. There was again a period of progress under the two wise and active governors, Lenoir and Dumas, between 1720 and 1742 A.D. The French captured Mauritius in 1721 A.D., and Masulipatam, Calicut, Mahe and Yanam in the next two years. They had only commercial objectives in view till now.
Political motives appeared after 1740 with Dupleix’s ambition to establish a French empire in India.

Causes of the Rivalry of the French and the English

The commercial and political interest of the English and the French brought them in constant clash with each other.
The French Governors in the East wanted to expel the English from the Indies.
In Europe also the English and the French were rivals for power. Their fight for power in Europe was sure to react on their relations in India.
The strength of the English and the French was on trial during the second Hundred Years’ War (1689-1815).
Many important issues were involved in this (a) the question of leadership in India, (b) the issue as to which form of religion and government should prevail, (c) the third issue was as to who should control the seas.
The power which was supreme in the sea was to enjoy the best fruits of commerce and the commands of the newly discovered lands.
The French leaders and commanders were determined to establish French empire in India.
The war of the Austrian succession broke out in Europe in 1740. England and France took opposite sides, though they formally declared war against each other only in 1744.
As a result of this, war broke out between the two nations in India also. So the war of the Austrian succession served as the immediate cause of the First Carnatic War.

Formation of the British East India Company (December 31, 11600):

≫ 31 December 1600
The British East India Company was formed.

≫ What happened?
On 31 December 1600, the British East India Company received a Royal Charter from the British monarch Elizabeth I to trade with the East Indies. The company went on to colonise the Indian subcontinent.

≫ British East India Company Facts

The East India Company (EIC) was also known as the Honourable East India Company or simply, the John Company informally.
It was a joint stock company established with the purpose of trading with the East Indies. The company was initially set to trade with maritime Southeast Asia but it ended up trading with China and India.
It was originally chartered as the “Governor and Company of Merchants of London trading into the East Indies”. Its shares were owned by aristocrats and rich merchants of Britain.
Although started as a trading company, it paved the way for the creation of the British Raj in India.
It mainly traded in cotton, indigo dye, silk, salt, saltpetre, opium and tea. Saltpetre was an ingredient in gunpowder.
The original Royal Charter was given to “George, Earl of Cumberland, and 215 Knights, Aldermen, and Burgesses”. The charter gave the company a monopoly to trade with all countries east of the Cape of Good Hope and west of the Straits of Magellan for an initial period of 15 years.
The company’s first voyage to India was commanded by Sir James Lancaster in 1601 and returned in 1603. During this voyage, the company’s first factory was set up at Bantam in the island of Java in Indonesia. Surat, as a trade point of transit was established in 1608.
In 1608, a voyage under Sir William Hawkins arrived and the ship commanded by him became the first ship to set anchor at Surat. Hawkins was an envoy in the court of the Mughal Emperor Jahangir for two years during which time he tried to obtain trade concessions but in vain.
Within 1610, the first company factory in south India was set up in Machilipatnam (in modern-day Andhra Pradesh) along the Coromandel Coast.
The company was generating huge profits from its India trade.
The EIC was engaged in frequent battles with the other European players like the Portuguese and the Dutch, who had established themselves earlier in the subcontinent.
In 1612, the Battle of Swally (Suvali in Surat) was fought between the company forces and the Portuguese. The company had a decisive victory, and this led to the rise of the EIC as a paramount force in India, and also to the end of Portuguese dominance.
After this, the company decided to try its hand in getting a territorial base in mainland India. In 1612, Sir Thomas Roe was sent as a representative of the British king James I to the court of Jahangir. Roe was successful in securing exclusive rights to reside and set up factories in Surat and in some other areas for the company.
Slowly, the company dominated other European players and established trading posts in Surat in 1619, Madras in 1639, Bombay in 1668 and Calcutta in 1690. The chief factories became the walled forts of Fort St. George in Madras, Fort William in Bengal and the manor house Bombay Castle.
Through a series of acts around the year 1670, the company gained rights to acquire territory, mint money, command fortresses and troops, form alliances, indulge in war, and exercise civil and criminal jurisdiction over their acquired territories. This greatly enhanced the company’s powers.
In Bengal, the Mughal Emperor completely waived off customs duties for trade for the company in 1717. The company led by Governor General Robert Clive was able to gain dominance over the French who were restricted to a few ports in the country.
The company was also employing Indians in its army and by 1763, it had about 67000 troops. They became a major force in India and used extensively by the company for political purposes. Each of the presidencies of Bengal, Madras and Bombay had their own infantry, cavalry, artillery and horse artillery units. They also had a navy.
EIC frequently interfered in the internal politics of the subcontinent and played one local ruler against the other.
In the Battle of Plassey in 1757, the Nawab of Bengal was defeated by the British and a British puppet was placed on the throne.
Company rule effectively started with the Battle of Buxar in 1764 when the Nawab of Bengal surrendered the diwani rights of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa to the company and Robert Clive was made the Governor of Bengal.
The Regulating Act of 1773 brought about several administrative reforms to the company and made Warren Hastings the first Governor-General of Bengal with control over the other two presidencies.
Several other acts were passed throughout the years till 1853 in order to regulate and administer the company’s possessions in India.
The Revolt of 1857 was primarily brought about because of the company’s apathetic policies and corruption it indulged in India. This also ended the company’s rule over India and the control went directly into the hands of the British government through the Government of India Act 1858.
The company’s possessions, military and administrative powers were all transferred to the government.
After that, the company continued to look after the British government’s tea trade until 1874 when it was finally dissolved.
Started as a trading company, the EIC managed to literally hand over India to the British crown.

≫ Also on this day

1501: The first Battle of Cannanore.
1738: Birth of Lord Cornwallis, 3^rd Governor-General of India.

≫ FACTS ABOUT THE FIRST CARNATIC WAR

Fought between: English and French forces.
People involved: Joseph François Dupleix (French Governor-General), Major Stringer Lawrence (British), Anwaruddin Khan (Nawab of the Carnatic).
When: 1746 – 1748
Where: Carnatic region, Southern India
Result: Inconclusive.

≫ Course of the First Carnatic War

France and Britain were on opposite sides of the camp at the War of Austrian Succession that had broken out in Europe in 1740.
This Anglo-French rivalry led to their trading companies in India vying with each other for supremacy.
The French Governor of Pondicherry Dupleix had raised an army of Indian sepoys under French officers in India.
The French East India Company was nationalized in 1720 and France had imperialistic designs on India.
In 1745, there was a naval attack on a French fleet by Britain in which even Pondicherry in danger.
Dupleix, along with additional French troops from Mauritius defended against this attack and captured Madras, which had been controlled by the English.
The English made another attack on Pondicherry but instead faced a heavy loss. The English sought help from the Nawab of Carnatic (Arcot) Anwaruddin Khan.
The Nawab asked the French to return Madras to the British.
Dupleix tried convincing the Nawab unsuccessfully that Madras would be handed over to him at a later stage.
Then, the Nawab sent a huge army to fight the French forces. This army was defeated by the relatively small number of French forces in Mylapore (in modern-day Chennai) in 1746.
This exposed the weakness of the armies of the Indian rulers vis-à-vis the efficiently trained armies of the European powers.
The war ended in 1748 with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle also called Treaty of Aachen.

≫ Effects of the First Carnatic War

Madras was given back to the English in exchange for Louisburg in North America to France.
Dupleix understood the superiority of the European armies who used this advantage to influence Indian princes and establish French hegemony in South India.

≫ FACTS ABOUT THE SECOND CARNATIC WAR

Fought between: Different claimants to the posts of the Nizam of Hyderabad, and the Nawab of the Carnatic; each claimant being supported either by the British or the French.
People involved: Muhammad Ali and Chanda Sahib (for the Nawabship of the Carnatic or Arcot); Muzaffar Jung and Nasir Jung (for the post of the Nizam of Hyderabad).
When: 1749 – 1754
Where: Carnatic (Southern India)
Result: Muzaffar Jung became Hyderabad’s Nizam. Muhammad Ali became the Nawab of the Carnatic.

≫ Course of the Second Carnatic War

The first Carnatic War demonstrated the power of the well-trained European army vis-à-vis the less than efficient armies of the Indian princes.
The French Governor-General Dupleix wanted to take advantage of this and assert influence and authority over the Indian kingdoms, so as to make way for a French Empire in India. So, he was looking to interfere in the internal power struggles among Indian chiefs.
Even though England and France were officially at peace with each other as there was no fighting in Europe, the political climate in Southern Indian at that time led their companies to fight in the subcontinent.
The Nizam of Hyderabad, Asaf Jah I died in 1748 starting a power struggle between his grandson (through his daughter) Muzaffar Jung, and his son Nasir Jung.
Anwaruddin Khan, the Nawab of the Carnatic supported Nasir Jung’s claim to the throne of the Nizam.
This led Muzaffar Jung to instigate war with French support against Anwaruddin, called the Battle of Ambur.
Anwaruddin Khan had died in the Battle of Ambur in 1749.
Now there was a tussle for the Nawabship of Carnatic between Muhammad Ali (son of Anwaruddin) and Chanda Sahib (son-in-law of Dost Ali Khan, a former Nawab of the Carnatic).
This led to a tripartite understanding among the various powers. This is explained in the table below:
After Anwaruddin Khan’s death, his son Muhammad Ali fled to Trichy. Then, Chanda Sahib was proclaimed the Nawab of the Carnatic.
Then, French forces marched on to the Deccan and fought and killed Nasir Jung.
Subsequently, Muzaffar Jung was installed as the Nizam of Hyderabad.
However, Muzaffar Jung was killed a couple of months later and the French installed Salabat Jung (another son of Asaf Jah I) as the Nizam.
In return, the French acquired from the Nizam four rich districts on the Coromandel Coast (Northern Sircars).
At this time, Trichy was under the control of Chanda Sahib and the French. But the Trichy Fort was held by Muhammad Ali.
To undermine the growing French power in the region, the English decided to support Muhammad Ali.
Robert Clive (later Governor of Bengal) attacked Arcot, the capital of the Carnatic, as a divisionary tactic. This is called the Siege of Arcot, in which the British won.
After this many battles were fought and Chanda Sahib was killed in one of them.
Thus, Muhammad Ali was installed as the Nawab of the Carnatic.
The war ended with the Treaty of Pondicherry in 1754.

Effects of the Second Carnatic War

Although the French gained the Northern Sircars, Dupleix was criticised by the French authorities because of heavy losses to the French company.
Dupleix was called back to France. He was replaced by Charles-Robert Godeheu who signed the Treaty of Pondicherry.
As per the treaty, the English and the French were to indulge only in commercial activities in India and not interfere in sub-continental political affairs.

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